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64tass v1.53 r1515 reference manual
This is the manual for 64tass, the multi pass optimizing macro assembler for
the 65xx series of processors. Key features:
* Open source portable C with minimal dependencies
* Familiar syntax to Omicron TASS and TASM
* Supports 6502, 65C02, R65C02, W65C02, 65CE02, 65816, DTV, 65EL02, 4510
* Arbitrary-precision integers and bit strings, double precision floating
point numbers
* Character and byte strings, array arithmetic
* Handles UTF-8, UTF-16 and 8 bit RAW encoded source files, Unicode character
strings
* Supports Unicode identifiers with compatibility normalization and optional
case insensitivity
* Built-in `linker' with section support
* Various memory models, binary targets and text output formats (also Hex/
S-record)
* Assembly and label listings available for debugging or exporting
* Conditional compilation, macros, structures, unions, scopes
Contrary how the length of this document suggests 64tass can be used with just
basic 6502 assembly knowledge in simple ways like any other assembler. If some
advanced functionality is needed then this document can serve as a reference.
This is a development version. Features or syntax may change as a result of
corrections in non-backwards compatible ways in some rare cases. It's difficult
to get everything `right' first time.
Project page: http://sourceforge.net/projects/tass64/
The page hosts the latest and older versions with sources and a bug and a
feature request tracker.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Table of Contents
* Table of Contents
* Usage tips
* Expressions and data types
+ Integer constants
+ Bit string constants
+ Floating point constants
+ Character string constants
+ Byte string constants
+ Lists and tuples
+ Dictionaries
+ Code
+ Addressing modes
+ Uninitialized memory
+ Booleans
+ Types
+ Symbols
o Regular symbols
o Local symbols
o Anonymous symbols
o Constant and re-definable symbols
o The star label
+ Built-in functions
o Mathematical functions
o Other functions
+ Expressions
o Operators
o Comparison operators
o Bit string extraction operators
o Conditional operators
o Address length forcing
o Compound assignment
o Slicing and indexing
* Compiler directives
+ Controlling the compile offset and program counter
+ Dumping data
o Storing numeric values
o Storing string values
+ Text encoding
+ Structured data
o Structure
o Union
o Combined use of structures and unions
+ Macros
o Parameter references
o Text references
+ Custom functions
+ Conditional assembly
o If, else if, else
o Switch, case, default
+ Repetitions
+ Including files
+ Scopes
+ Sections
+ 65816 related
+ Controlling errors
+ Target
+ Misc
+ Printer control
* Pseudo instructions
+ Aliases
+ Always taken branches
+ Long branches
* Original turbo assembler compatibility
+ How to convert source code for use with 64tass
+ Differences to the original turbo ass macro on the C64
+ Labels
+ Expression evaluation
+ Macros
+ Bugs
* Command line options
+ Output options
+ Operation options
+ Diagnostic options
+ Target selection on command line
+ Symbol listing
+ Assembly listing
+ Other options
* Messages
+ Warnings
+ Errors
+ Fatal errors
* Credits
* Default translation and escape sequences
+ Raw 8-bit source
o The none encoding for raw 8-bit
o The screen encoding for raw 8-bit
+ Unicode and ASCII source
o The none encoding for Unicode
o The screen encoding for Unicode
* Opcodes
+ Standard 6502 opcodes
+ 6502 illegal opcodes
+ 65DTV02 opcodes
+ Standard 65C02 opcodes
+ R65C02 opcodes
+ W65C02 opcodes
+ W65816 opcodes
+ 65EL02 opcodes
+ 65CE02 opcodes
+ CSG 4510 opcodes
* Appendix
+ Assembler directives
+ Built-in functions
+ Built-in types
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Usage tips
64tass is a command line assembler, the source can be written in any text
editor. As a minimum the source filename must be given on the command line. The
`-a' command line option is highly recommended if the source is Unicode or
ASCII.
64tass -a src.asm
There are also some useful parameters which are described later.
For comfortable compiling I use such `Makefile's (for make):
demo.prg: source.asm macros.asm pic.drp music.bin
64tass -C -a -B -i source.asm -o demo.tmp
pucrunch -ffast -x 2048 demo.tmp >demo.prg
This way `demo.prg' is recreated by compiling `source.asm' whenever
`source.asm', `macros.asm', `pic.drp' or `music.bin' had changed.
Of course it's not much harder to create something similar for win32
(make.bat), however this will always compile and compress:
64tass.exe -C -a -B -i source.asm -o demo.tmp
pucrunch.exe -ffast -x 2048 demo.tmp >demo.prg
Here's a slightly more advanced Makefile example with default action as testing
in VICE, clean target for removal of temporary files and compressing using an
intermediate temporary file:
all: demo.prg
x64 -autostartprgmode 1 -autostart-warp +truedrive +cart $<
demo.prg: demo.tmp
pucrunch -ffast -x 2048 $< >$@
demo.tmp: source.asm macros.asm pic.drp music.bin
64tass -C -a -B -i $< -o $@
.INTERMEDIATE: demo.tmp
.PHONY: all clean
clean:
$(RM) demo.prg demo.tmp
It's useful to add a basic header to your source files like the one below, so
that the resulting file is directly runnable without additional compression:
* = $0801
.word (+), 2005 ;pointer, line number
.null $9e, format("%d", start);will be sys 4096
+ .word 0 ;basic line end
* = $1000
start rts
A frequently coming up question is, how to automatically allocate memory,
without hacks like *=*+1? Sure there's .byte and friends for variables with
initial values but what about zero page, or RAM outside of program area? The
solution is to not use an initial value by using `?' or not giving a fill byte
value to .fill.
* = $02
p1 .word ? ;a zero page pointer
temp .fill 10 ;a 10 byte temporary area
Space allocated this way is not saved in the output as there's no data to save
at those addresses.
What about some code running on zero page for speed? It needs to be relocated,
and the length must be known to copy it there. Here's an example:
ldx #size(zpcode)-1;calculate length
- lda zpcode,x
sta wrbyte,x
dex ;install to zero page
bpl -
jsr wrbyte
rts
;code continues here but is compiled to run from $02
zpcode .logical $02
wrbyte sta $ffff ;quick byte writer at $02
inc wrbyte+1
bne +
inc wrbyte+2
+ rts
.here
The assembler supports lists and tuples, which does not seems interesting at
first as it sound like something which is only useful when heavy scripting is
involved. But as normal arithmetic operations also apply on all their elements
at once, this could spare quite some typing and repetition.
Let's take a simple example of a low/high byte jump table of return addresses,
this usually involves some unnecessary copy/pasting to create a pair of tables
with constructs like >(label-1).
jumpcmd lda hibytes,x ; selected routine in X register
pha
lda lobytes,x ; push address to stack
pha
rts ; jump, rts will increase pc by one!
; Build an anonymous list of jump addresses minus 1
- = (cmd_p, cmd_c, cmd_m, cmd_s, cmd_r, cmd_l, cmd_e)-1
lobytes .byte <(-) ; low bytes of jump addresses
hibytes .byte >(-) ; high bytes
There are some other tips below in the descriptions.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Expressions and data types
Integer constants
Integer constants can be entered as decimal digits of arbitrary length. An
underscore can be used between digits as a separator for better readability of
long numbers. The following operations are accepted:
Integer operators and functions
x + y add x to y 2 + 2 is 4
x - y subtract y from x 4 - 1 is 3
x * y multiply x with y 2 * 3 is 6
x / y integer divide x by y 7 / 2 is 3
x % y integer modulo of x divided by y 5 % 2 is 1
x ** y x raised to power of y 2 ** 4 is 16
-x negated value -2 is -2
+x unchanged +2 is 2
~x -x - 1 ~3 is -4
x | y bitwise or 2 | 6 is 6
x ^ y bitwise xor 2 ^ 6 is 4
x & y bitwise and 2 & 6 is 2
x << y logical shift left 1 << 3 is 8
x >> y arithmetic shift right -8 >> 3 is -1
Integers are automatically promoted to float as necessary in expressions. Other
types can be converted to integer using the integer type int.
.byte 23 ; decimal
lda #((bitmap >> 10) & $0f) | ((screen >> 6) & $f0)
sta $d018
Bit string constants
Bit string constants can be entered in hexadecimal form with a leading dollar
sign or in binary with a leading percent sign. An underscore can be used
between digits as a separator for better readability of long numbers. The
following operations are accepted:
Bit string operators and functions
~x invert bits ~%101 is ~%101
y .. x concatenate bits $a .. $b is $ab
y x n repeat %101 x 3 is %101101101
x[n] extract bit(s) $a[1] is %1
x[s] slice bits $1234[4:8] is $3
x | y bitwise or ~$2 | $6 is ~$0
x ^ y bitwise xor ~$2 ^ $6 is ~$4
x & y bitwise and ~$2 & $6 is $4
x << y bitwise shift left $0f << 4 is $0f0
x >> y bitwise shift right ~$f4 >> 4 is ~$f
Length of bit string constants are defined in bits and is calculated from the
number of bit digits used including leading zeros.
Bit strings are automatically promoted to integer or floating point as
necessary in expressions. The higher bits are extended with zeros or ones as
needed.
Bit strings support indexing and slicing. This is explained in detail in
section `Slicing and indexing'.
Other types can be converted to bit string using the bit string type bits.
.byte $33 ; hex
.byte %00011111 ; binary
.text $1234 ; $34, $12
lda $01
and #~$07
ora #$05
sta $01
lda $d015
and #~%00100000 ;clear a bit
sta $d015
Floating point constants
Floating point constants have a radix point in them and optionally an exponent.
A decimal exponent is `e' while a binary one is `p'. An underscore can be used
between digits as a separator for better readability. The following operations
can be used:
Floating point operators and functions
x + y add x to y 2.2 + 2.2 is 4.4
x - y subtract y from x 4.1 - 1.1 is 3.0
x * y multiply x with y 1.5 * 3 is 4.5
x / y integer divide x by y 7.0 / 2.0 is 3.5
x % y integer modulo of x divided by y 5.0 % 2.0 is 1.0
x ** y x raised t power of y 2.0 ** -1 is 0.5
-x negated value -2.0 is -2.0
+x unchanged +2.0 is 2.0
x | y bitwise or 2.5 | 6.5 is 6.5
x ^ y bitwise xor 2.5 ^ 6.5 is 4.0
x & y bitwise and 2.5 & 6.5 is 2.5
x << y logical shift left 1.0 << 3.0 is 8.0
x >> y arithmetic shift right -8.0 >> 4 is -0.5
~x almost -x ~2.1 is almost -2.1
As usual comparing floating point numbers for (non) equality is a bad idea due
to rounding errors.
The only predefined constant is pi.
Floating point numbers are automatically truncated to integer as necessary.
Other types can be converted to floating point by using the type float.
Fixed point conversion can be done by using the shift operators. For example a
8.16 fixed point number can be calculated as (3.14 << 16) & $ffffff. The binary
operators operate like if the floating point number would be a fixed point one.
This is the reason for the strange definition of inversion.
.byte 3.66e1 ; 36.6, truncated to 36
.byte $1.8p4 ; 4:4 fixed point number (1.5)
.sint 12.2p8 ; 8:8 fixed point number (12.2)
Character string constants
Character strings are enclosed in single or double quotes and can hold any
Unicode character. Operations like indexing or slicing are always done on the
original representation. The current encoding is only applied when it's used in
expressions as numeric constants or in context of text data directives.
Doubling the quotes inside string literals escapes them and results in a single
quote.
Character string operators and functions
y .. x concatenate strings "a" .. "b" is "ab"
y in x is substring of "b" in "abc" is true
a x n repeat "ab" x 3 is "ababab"
a[i] character from start "abc"[1] is "b"
a[i] character from end "abc"[-1] is "c"
a[s] no change "abc"[:] is "abc"
a[s] cut off start "abc"[1:] is "bc"
a[s] cut off end "abc"[:-1] is "ab"
a[s] reverse "abc"[::-1] is "cba"
Character strings are converted to integers, byte and bit strings as necessary
using the current encoding and escape rules. For example when using a sane
encoding "z"-"a" is 25.
Other types can be converted to character strings by using the type str or by
using the repr and format functions.
Character strings support indexing and slicing. This is explained in detail in
section `Slicing and indexing'.
mystr = "oeU" ; text
.text 'it''s' ; text: it's
.word "ab"+1 ; character, results in "bb" usually
.text "text"[:2] ; "te"
.text "text"[2:] ; "xt"
.text "text"[:-1] ; "tex"
.text "reverse"[::-1]; "esrever"
Byte string constants
Byte strings are like character strings, but hold bytes instead of characters.
Quoted character strings prefixing by `b', `l', `n', `p' or `s' characters can
be used to create byte strings. The resulting byte string contains what .text,
.shiftl, .null, .ptext and .shift would create.
Byte string operators and functions
y .. x concatenate strings b"a" .. b"b" is b"ab"
y in x is substring of b"b" in b"abc" is true
a x n repeat b"ab" x 3 is b"ababab"
a[i] byte from start b"abc"[1] is b"b"
a[i] byte from end b"abc"[-1] is b"c"
a[s] no change b"abc"[:] is b"abc"
a[s] cut off start b"abc"[1:] is b"bc"
a[s] cut off end b"abc"[:-1] is b"ab"
a[s] reverse b"abc"[::-1] is b"cba"
Byte strings support indexing and slicing. This is explained in detail in
section `Slicing and indexing'.
Other types can be converted to byte strings by using the type bytes.
.enc "screen" ;use screen encoding
mystr = b"oeU" ;convert text to bytes, like .text
.enc "none" ;normal encoding
.text mystr ;text as originally encoded
.text s"p1" ;convert to bytes like .shift
.text l"p2" ;convert to bytes like .shiftl
.text n"p3" ;convert to bytes like .null
.text p"p4" ;convert to bytes like .ptext
Lists and tuples
Lists and tuples can hold a collection of values. Lists are defined from values
separated by comma between square brackets [1, 2, 3], an empty list is [].
Tuples are similar but are enclosed in parentheses instead. An empty tuple is
(), a single element tuple is (4,) to differentiate from normal numeric
expression parentheses. When nested they function similar to an array.
Currently both types are immutable.
List and tuple operators and functions
y .. x concatenate lists [1] .. [2] is [1, 2]
y in x is member of list 2 in [1, 2, 3] is true
a x n repeat [1, 2] x 2 is [1, 2, 1, 2]
a[i] element from start ("1", 2)[1] is 2
a[i] element from end ("1", 2, 3)[-1] is 3
a[s] no change (1, 2, 3)[:] is (1, 2, 3)
a[s] cut off start (1, 2, 3)[1:] is (2, 3)
a[s] cut off end (1, 2.0, 3)[:-1] is (1, 2.0)
a[s] reverse (1, 2, 3)[::-1] is (3, 2, 1)
*a convert to arguments format("%d: %s", *mylist)
Arithmetic operations are applied on the all elements recursively, therefore
[1, 2] + 1 is [2, 3], and abs([1, -1]) is [1, 1].
Arithmetic operations between lists are applied one by one on their elements,
so [1, 2] + [3, 4] is [4, 6].
When lists form an array and columns/rows are missing the smaller array is
stretched to fill in the gaps if possible, so [[1], [2]] * [3, 4] is [[3, 4],
[6, 8]].
Lists and tuples support indexing and slicing. This is explained in detail in
section `Slicing and indexing'.
mylist = [1, 2, "whatever"]
mytuple = (cmd_e, cmd_g)
mylist = ("e", cmd_e, "g", cmd_g, "i", cmd_i)
keys .text mylist[::2] ; keys ("e", "g", "i")
call_l .byte <mylist[1::2]-1; routines (<cmd_e-1, <cmd_g-1, <cmd_i-1)
call_h .byte >mylist[1::2]-1; routines (>cmd_e-1, >cmd_g-1, >cmd_i-1)
The range(start, end, step) built-in function can be used to create lists of
integers in a range with a given step value. At least the end must be given,
the start defaults to 0 and the step to 1. Sounds not very useful, so here are
a few examples:
;Bitmask table, 8 bits from left to right
.byte %10000000 >> range(8)
;Classic 256 byte single period sinus table with values of 0-255.
.byte 128.5 + 127 * sin(range(256) * rad(360.0/256))
;Screen row address tables
- = $400 + range(0, 1000, 40)
scrlo .byte <(-)
scrhi .byte >(-)
Dictionaries
Dictionaries are unsorted lists holding key and value pairs. Definition is done
by collecting key:value pairs separated by comma between braces {1:"value",
"key":1, :"optional default value"}.
Looking up a non existing key is normally an error unless a default value is
given. An empty dictionary is {}. Currently this type is immutable. Numeric and
string keys are accepted, the value can be anything.
Dictionary operators and functions
x[i] value lookup {"1":2}["1"] is 2
y in x is a key 1 in {1:2} is true
; Simple lookup
.text {1:"one", 2:"two"}[2]; "two"
; 16 element "fader" table 1->15->12->11->0
.byte {1:15, 15:12, 12:11, :0}[range(16)]
Code
Code holds the result of compilation in binary and other enclosed objects. In
an arithmetic operation it's used as the numeric address of the memory where it
starts. The compiled content remains static even if later parts of the source
overwrite the same memory area.
Indexing and slicing of code to access the compiled content might be
implemented differently in future releases. Use this feature at your own risk
for now, you might need to update your code later.
Label operators and functions
a.b member label.locallabel
a[i] element from start label[1]
a[i] element from end label[-1]
a[s] copy as tuple label[:]
a[s] cut off start, as tuple label[1:]
a[s] cut off end, as tuple label[:-1]
a[s] reverse, as tuple label[::-1]
mydata .word 1, 4, 3
mycode .block
local lda #0
.bend
ldx #size(mydata) ;6 bytes (3*2)
ldx #len(mydata) ;3 elements
ldx #mycode[0] ;lda instruction, $a9
ldx #mydata[1] ;2nd element, 4
jmp mycode.local ;address of local label
Addressing modes
Addressing modes are used for determining addressing modes of instructions.
For indexing there must be no white space between the comma and the register
letter, otherwise the indexing operator is not recognized. On the other hand
put a space between the comma and a single letter symbol in a list to avoid it
being recognized as an operator.
Addressing mode operators
# immediate
#+ signed immediate
#- signed immediate
( indirect
[ long indirect
,b data bank indexed
,d direct page indexed
,k program bank indexed
,r data stack pointer indexed
,s stack pointer indexed
,x x register indexed
,y y register indexed
,z z register indexed
Parentheses are used for indirection and square brackets for long indirection.
These operations are only available after instructions and functions to not
interfere with their normal use in expressions.
Several addressing mode operators can be combined together. Currently the
complexity is limited to 4 operators. This is enough to describe all addressing
modes of the supported CPUs.
Valid addressing mode operator combinations
# immediate lda #$12
#+ signed immediate lda #+127
#- signed immediate lda #-128
#addr,#addr move mvp #5,#6
addr direct or relative lda $12 lda $1234 bne $1234
addr,addr direct page bit rmb 5,$12
addr,addr,addr direct page bit relative jump bbs 5,$12,$1234
(addr) indirect lda ($12) jmp ($1234)
(addr),y indirect y indexed lda ($12),y
(addr),z indirect z indexed lda ($12),z
(addr,x) x indexed indirect lda ($12,x) jmp ($1234,x)
[addr] long indirect lda [$12] jmp [$1234]
[addr],y long indirect y indexed lda [$12],y
#addr,b data bank indexed lda #0,b
#addr,b,x data bank x indexed lda #0,b,x
#addr,b,y data bank y indexed lda #0,b,y
#addr,d direct page indexed lda #0,d
#addr,d,x direct page x indexed lda #0,d,x
#addr,d,y direct page y indexed ldx #0,d,y
(#addr,d) direct page indirect lda (#$12,d)
(#addr,d,x) direct page x indexed indirect lda (#$12,d,x)
(#addr,d),y direct page indirect y indexed lda (#$12,d),y
(#addr,d),z direct page indirect z indexed lda (#$12,d),z
[#addr,d] direct page long indirect lda [#$12,d]
[#addr,d],y direct page long indirect y indexed lda [#$12,d],y
#addr,k program bank indexed jsr #0,k
(#addr,k,x) program bank x indexed indirect jmp (#$1234,k,x)
#addr,r data stack indexed lda #1,r
(#addr,r),y data stack indexed indirect y lda #($12,r),y
indexed
#addr,s stack indexed lda #1,s
(#addr,s),y stack indexed indirect y indexed lda (#$12,s),y
addr,x x indexed lda $12,x
addr,y y indexed lda $12,y
Direct page, data bank, program bank indexed and long addressing modes of
instructions are intelligently chosen based on the instruction type, the
address ranges set up by .dpage, .databank and the current program counter
address. Therefore the `,d', `,b' and `,k' indexing is only used in very
special cases.
The immediate direct page indexed `#0,d' addressing mode is usable for direct
page access. The 8 bit constant is a direct offset from the start of actual
direct page.
The immediate data bank indexed `#0,b' addressing mode is usable for data bank
access. The 16 bit constant is a direct offset from the start of actual data
bank.
The immediate program bank indexed `#0,k' addressing mode is usable for program
bank jumps, braches and calls. The 16 bit constant is a direct offset from the
start of actual program bank.
The immediate stack indexed `#0,s' and data stack indexed `#0,r' accept 8 bit
constants as an offset from the start of (data) stack. These are sometimes
written without the immediate notation, but this makes it more clear what's
going on. For the same reason the move instructions are written with an
immediate addressing mode `#0,#0' as well.
The immediate (#) addressing mode expects unsigned values of byte or word size.
Therefore it only accepts constants of 1 byte or in range 0-255 or 2 bytes or
in range 0-65535.
The signed immediate (#+ and #-) addressing mode is to allow signed numbers to
be used as immediate constants. It accepts a single byte or an integer in range
-128-127, or two bytes or an integer of -32768-32767.
The use of signed immediate (like #-3) is seamless, but it needs to be
explicitly written out for variables or expressions (#+variable). In case the
unsigned variant is needed but the expression starts with a negation then it
needs to be put into parentheses (#(-variable)) or else it'll change the
address mode to signed.
Normally addressing mode operators are used in expressions right after
instructions. They can also be used for defining stack variable symbols when
using a 65816, or to force a specific addressing mode.
param = #1,s ;define a stack variable
const = #1 ;immediate constant
lda #0,b ;always "absolute" lda $0000
lda param ;results in lda #$01,s
lda param+1 ;results in lda #$02,s
lda (param),y ;results in lda (#$01,s),y
ldx const ;results in ldx #$01
lda #-2 ;negative constant, $fe
Uninitialized memory
There's a special value for uninitialized memory, it's represented by a
question mark. Whenever it's used to generate data it creates a `hole' where
the previous content of memory is visible.
Uninitialized memory holes without previous content are not saved unless it's
really necessary for the output format, in that case it's replaced with zeros.
It's not just data generation statements (e.g. .byte) that can create
uninitialized memory, but .fill, .align, .offs or address manipulation as well.
* = $200 ;bytes as necessary
.word ? ;2 bytes
.fill 10 ;10 bytes
.align 64 ;bytes as necessary
.offs 16 ;16 bytes
Booleans
There are two predefined boolean constant variables, true and false.
Booleans are created by comparison operators (<, <=, !=, ==, >=, >), logical
operators (&&, ||, ^^, !), the membership operator (in) and the all and any
functions.
Normally in numeric expressions true is 1 and false is 0, unless the `
-Wstrict-bool' command line option was used.
Other types can be converted to boolean by using the type bool.
Boolean values of various types
bits At least one non-zero bit
bool When true
bytes At least one non-zero byte
code Address is non-zero
float Not 0.0
int Not zero
str At least one non-zero byte after translation
Types
The various types mentioned earlier have predefined names. These can used for
conversions or type checks.
Built-in type names
address Address type
bits Bit string type
bool Boolean type
bytes Byte string type
code Code type
dict Dictionary type
float Floating point type
gap Uninitialized memory type
int Integer type
list List type
str Character string type
tuple Tuple type
type Type type
.cerror type(var) != str, "Not a string!"
.text str(year) ; convert to string
Symbols
Symbols are used to reference objects. Regularly named, anonymous and local
symbols are supported. These can be constant or re-definable.
Scopes are where symbols are stored and looked up. The global scope is always
defined and it can contain any number of nested scopes.
Symbols must be uniquely named in a scope, therefore in big programs it's hard
to come up with useful and easy to type names. That's why local and anonymous
symbols exists. And grouping certain related symbols into a scope makes sense
sometimes too.
Scopes are usually created by .proc and .block directives, but there are a few
other ways. Symbols in a scope can be accessed by using the dot operator, which
is applied between the name of the scope and the symbol (e.g.
myconsts.math.pi).
Regular symbols
Regular symbol names are starting with a letter and containing letters, numbers
and underscores. Unicode letters are allowed if the `-a' command line option
was used. There's no restriction on the length of symbol names.
Care must be taken to not use duplicate names in the same scope when the symbol
is used as a constant. Case sensitivity can be enabled with the `-C' command
line option, otherwise all symbols are matched case insensitive.
Duplicate names in parent scopes are never a problem, they'll just be
`shadowed'. This could be either good by reducing collisions and gives the
ability to override `defaults' defined in lower scopes. On the other hand it's
possible to mix-up the new symbol with a old one by mistake, which is hard to
notice.
A regular symbol is looked up first in the current scope, then in lower scopes
until the global scope is reached.
f .block
g .block
n nop ;jump here
.bend
.bend
jsr f.g.n ;reference from a scope
f.x = 3 ;create x in scope f with value 3
Local symbols
Local symbols have their own scope between two regularly named code symbols and
are assigned to the code symbol above them.
Therefore they're easy to reuse without explicit scope declaration directives.
Not all regularly named symbols can be scope boundaries just plain code symbol
ones without anything or an opcode after them (no macros!). Symbols defined as
procedures, blocks, macros, functions, structures and unions are ignored. Also
symbols defined by .var, := or = don't apply, and there are a few more
exceptions, so stick to using plain code labels.
The name must start with an underscore (_), otherwise the same character
restrictions apply as for regular symbols. There's no restriction on the length
of the name.
Care must be taken to not use the duplicate names in the same scope when the
symbol is used as a constant.
A local symbol is only looked up in it's own scope and nowhere else.
incr inc ac
bne _skip
inc ac+1
_skip rts
decr lda ac
bne _skip
dec ac+1
_skip dec ac ;symbol reused here
jmp incr._skip ;this works too, but is not advised
Anonymous symbols
Anonymous symbols don't have a unique name and are always called as a single
plus or minus sign. They are also called as forward (+) and backward (-)
references.
When referencing them `-' means the first backward, `--' means the second
backwards and so on. It's the same for forward, but with `+'. In expressions it
may be necessary to put them into brackets.
ldy #4
- ldx #0
- txa
cmp #3
bcc +
adc #44
+ sta $400,x
inx
bne -
dey
bne --
Excessive nesting or long distance references create poorly readable code. It's
also very easy to copy-paste a few lines of code with these references into a
code fragment already containing similar references. The result is usually a
long debugging session to find out what went wrong.
These references are also useful in segments, but this can create a nice trap
when segments are copied into the code with their internal references.
bne +
#somemakro ;let's hope that this segment does
+ nop ;not contain forward references...
A anonymous symbols are looked up first in the current scope, then in lower
scopes until the global scope is reached.
Constant and re-definable symbols
Constant symbols can be created with the equal sign. These are not
re-definable. Forward referencing of them is allowed as they retain the objects
over compilation passes.
Symbols in front of code or certain assembler directives are created as
constant symbols too. They are bound to the object following them.
Re-definable symbols can be created by the .var directive or := construct.
These are also called as variables as they don't carry their content over from
the previous pass. Therefore it's not possible to use them before their
definition.
border = $d020 ;a constant
inc border ;inc $d020
variabl .var 1 ;a variable
var2 := 1 ;another variable
.rept 10
.byte variabl
variabl .var variabl+1 ;increment it
.next
The star label
The `*' symbol denotes the current program counter value. When accessed it's
value is the program counter at the beginning of the line. Assigning to it
changes the program counter and the compiling offset.
Built-in functions
Built-in functions are pre-assigned to the symbols listed below. If you reuse
these symbols in a scope for other purposes then they become inaccessible, or
can perform a different function.
Built-in functions can be assigned to symbols (e.g. sinus = sin), and the new
name can be used as the original function. They can even be passed as
parameters to functions.
Mathematical functions
floor(<expression>)
Round down. E.g. floor(-4.8) is -5.0
round(<expression>)
Round to nearest away from zero. E.g. round(4.8) is 5.0
ceil(<expression>)
Round up. E.g. ceil(1.1) is 2.0
trunc(<expression>)
Round down towards zero. E.g. trunc(-1.9) is -1
frac(<expression>)
Fractional part. E.g. frac(1.1) is 0.1
sqrt(<expression>)
Square root. E.g. sqrt(16.0) is 4.0
cbrt(<expression>)
Cube root. E.g. cbrt(27.0) is 3.0
log10(<expression>)
Common logarithm. E.g. log10(100.0) is 2.0
log(<expression>)
Natural logarithm. E.g. log(1) is 0.0
exp(<expression>)
Exponential. E.g. exp(0) is 1.0
pow(<expression a>, <expression b>)
A raised to power of B. E.g. pow(2.0, 3.0) is 8.0
sin(<expression>)
Sine. E.g. sin(0.0) is 0.0
asin(<expression>)
Arc sine. E.g. asin(0.0) is 0.0
sinh(<expression>)
Hyperbolic sine. E.g. sinh(0.0) is 0.0
cos(<expression>)
Cosine. E.g. cos(0.0) is 1.0
acos(<expression>)
Arc cosine. E.g. acos(1.0) is 0.0
cosh(<expression>)
Hyperbolic cosine. E.g. cosh(0.0) is 1.0
tan(<expression>)
Tangent. E.g. tan(0.0) is 0.0
atan(<expression>)
Arc tangent. E.g. atan(0.0) is 0.0
tanh(<expression>)
Hyperbolic tangent. E.g. tanh(0.0) is 0.0
rad(<expression>)
Degrees to radian. E.g. rad(0.0) is 0.0
deg(<expression>)
Radian to degrees. E.g. deg(0.0) is 0.0
hypot(<expression y>, <expression x>)
Polar distance. E.g. hypot(4.0, 3.0) is 5.0
atan2(<expression y>, <expression x>)
Polar angle in -pi to +pi range. E.g. atan2(0.0, 3.0) is 0.0
abs(<expression>)
Absolute value. E.g. abs(-1) is 1
sign(<expression>)
Returns the sign of value as -1, 0 or 1 for negative, zero and positive.
E.g. sign(-5) is -1
Other functions
all(<expression>)
Return truth for various definitions of `all'.
All function
all bits set or no bits at all all($f) is true
all characters non-zero or empty all("c") is true
string
all bytes non-zero or no bytes all(b"c") is true
all elements true or empty list all([true, true, false]) is false
Only booleans in a list are accepted with the `-Wstrict-bool' command line
option.
any(<expression>)
Return truth for various definitions of `any'.
Any function
at least one bit set any(~$f) is false
at least one non-zero character any("c") is true
at least one non-zero byte any(b"c") is true
at least one true element any([true, true, false]) is true
Only booleans in a list are accepted with the `-Wstrict-bool' command line
option.
format(<string expression>[, <expression>, ...])
Create string from values according to a format string.
The format function converts a list of values into a character string. The
converted values are inserted in place of the % sign. Optional conversion
flags and minimum field length may follow, before the conversion type
character. These flags can be used:
Formatting flags
# alternate form ($a, %10, 10.)
* width/precision from list
. precision
0 pad with zeros
- left adjusted (default right)
blank when positive or minus sign
+ sign even if positive
The following conversion types are implemented:
Formatting conversion types
a A hexadecimal floating point (uppercase)
b binary
c Unicode character
d decimal
e E exponential float (uppercase)
f F floating point (uppercase)
g G exponential/floating point
s string
r representation
x X hexadecimal (uppercase)
% percent sign
.text format("%#04x bytes left", 1000); $03e8 bytes left
len(<expression>)
Returns the number of elements.
Length of various types
bit string length in bits len($034) is 12
character string number of characters len("abc") is 3
byte string number of bytes len(b"abc") is 3
tuple, list number of elements len([1, 2, 3]) is 3
dictionary number of elements len({1:2, 3:4]) is 2
code number of elements len(label)
random([<expression>, ...])
Returns a pseudo random number.
The sequence does not change across compilations and is the same every
time. Different sequences can be generated by seeding with .seed.
Random function invocation types
floating point number 0.0 <= x < 1.0 random()
integer in range of 0 <= x < e random(e)
integer in range of s <= x < e random(s, a)
integer in range of s <= x < e, step t random(s, a, t)
.seed 1234 ; default is boring, seed the generator
.byte random(256); a pseudo random byte (0..255)
.byte random([16] x 8); 8 pseudo random bytes (0..15)
range(<expression>[, <expression>, ...])
Returns a list of integers in a range, with optional stepping.
Range function invocation types
integers from 0 to e-1 range(e)
integers from s to e-1 range(s, a)
integers from s to e (not including e), step t range(s, a, t)
.byte range(16) ; 0, 1, ..., 14, 15
.char range(-5, 6); -5, -4, ..., 4, 5
mylist = range(10, 0, -2); [10, 8, 6, 4, 2]
repr(<expression>)
Returns a string representation of value.
.warn repr(var) ; pretty print value, for debugging
size(<expression>)
Returns the size of code, structure or union in bytes.
ldx #size(var) ; size to x
sort(<list>)
Returns a sorted list or tuple.
If the original list contains further lists then these must be all of the
same length. In this case the order of lists is determined by comparing
their elements from the start until a difference is found. The sort is
stable.
; sort IRQ routines by their raster lines
sorted = sort([(60, irq1), (50, irq2)])
lines .byte sorted[:, 0] ; 50, 60
irqs .addr sorted[:, 1] ; irq2, irq1
Expressions
Operators
The following operators are available. Not all are defined for all types of
arguments and their meaning might slightly vary depending on the type.
Unary operators
- negative + positive
! not ~ invert
* convert to arguments ^ decimal string
The `^' decimal string operator will be changed to mean the bank byte soon.
Please update your sources to use format("%d", xxx) instead! This is done to be
in line with it's use in most other assemblers.
Binary operators
+ add - subtract
* multiply / divide
% modulo ** raise to power
| binary or ^ binary xor
& binary and << shift left
>> shift right . member
.. concat x repeat
in contains
There's a ternary operator (? :) which gives the second value if the first is
true or the third if the first is false.
Parenthesis (( )) can be used to override operator precedence. Don't forget
that they also denote indirect addressing mode for certain opcodes.
lda #(4+2)*3
Comparison operators
Traditional comparison operators give false or true depending on the result.
The compare operator (<=>) gives -1 for less, 0 for equal and 1 for more.
Comparison operators
<=> compare
== equals != not equal
< less than >= more than or equals
> more than <= less than or equals
Bit string extraction operators
These unary operators extract 8 or 16 bits as a bit string from various types
of operands.
Bit string extraction operators
< lower byte > higher byte
<> lower word >` higher word
>< lower byte swapped word ` bank byte
lda #<label
ldy #>label
jsr $ab1e
ldx #<>source ; word extraction
ldy #<>dest
lda #size(source)-1
mvn #`source, #`dest; bank extraction
Conditional operators
Boolean conditional operators give false or true or one of the operands as the
result.
Logical and conditional operators
x || y if x is true then x otherwise y
x ^^ y if both false or true then false otherwise x || y
x && y if x is true then y otherwise x
!x if x is true then false otherwise true
c ? x : y if c is true then x otherwise y
x <? y if x is smaller then x otherwise y
x >? y if x is greater then x otherwise y
;Silly example for 1=>"simple", 2=>"advanced", else "normal"
.text MODE == 1 && "simple" || MODE == 2 && "advanced" || "normal"
.text MODE == 1 ? "simple" : MODE == 2 ? "advanced" : "normal"
;Limit result to 0 .. 8
light .byte 0 >? range(-16, 101)/6 <? 8
Please note that these are not short circuiting operations and both sides are
calculated even if thrown away later.
With the `-Wstrict-bool' command line option booleans are required as arguments
and only the `?' operator may return something else.
Address length forcing
Special addressing length forcing operators in front of an expression can be
used to make sure the expected addressing mode is used. Only applicable when
used directly with instructions.
Address size forcing
@b to force 8 bit address
@w to force 16 bit address
@l to force 24 bit address (65816)
lda @w$0000
Compound assignment
These assignment operators are short hands for common .var directive use.
With the exception of := the variables updated must be defined beforehand. As
with .var they can't update constants, only variables.
Compound assignments
+= add -= subtract
*= multiply /= divide
%= modulo **= raise to power
|= binary or ^= binary xor
&= binary and ||= logical or
&&= logical and <<= shift left
>>= shift right ..= concat
<?= smaller >?= greater
x= repeat .= member
v += 1 ; same as 'v .var v + 1'
Slicing and indexing
Lists, character strings, byte strings and bit strings support various slicing
and indexing possibilities through the [] operator.
Indexing elements with positive integers is zero based. Negative indexes are
transformed to positive by adding the number of elements to them, therefore -1
is the last element. Indexing with list of integers is possible as well so [1,
2, 3][(-1, 0, 1)] is [3, 1, 2].
Slicing is an operation when parts of sequence is extracted from a start
position to an end position with a step value. These parameters are separated
with colons enclosed in square brackets and are all optional. Their default
values are [start:maximum:step=1]. Negative start and end characters are
converted to positive internally by adding the length of string to them.
Negative step operates in reverse direction, non-single steps will jump over
elements.
This is quite powerful and therefore a few examples will be given here:
Positive indexing a[x]
It'll simply extracts a numbered element. It is zero based, therefore
"abcd"[1] results in "b".
Negative indexing a[-x]
This extracts an element counted from the end, -1 is the last one. So
"abcd"[-2] results in "c".
Cut off end a[:to]
Extracts a continuous range stopping before `to'. So [10,20,30,40][:-1]
results in [10,20,30].
Cut off start a[from:]
Extracts a continuous range starting from `from'. So [10,20,30,40][-2:]
results in [30,40].
Slicing a[from:to]
Extracts a continuous range starting from element `from' and stopping
before `to'. The two end positions can be positive or negative indexes. So
[10,20,30,40][1:-1] results in [20,30].
Everything a[:]
Giving no start or end will cover everything and therefore results in a
complete copy.
Reverse a[::-1]
This gives everything in reverse, so "abcd"[::-1] is "dcba".
Stepping through a[from:to:step]
Extracts every `step'th element starting from `from' and stopping before
`to'. So "abcdef"[1:4:2] results in "bd". The `from' and `to' can be
omitted in case it starts from the beginning or end at the end. If the
`step' is negative then it's done in reverse.
Extract multiple elements a[list]
Extract elements based on a list. So "abcd"[[1,3]] will be "bd".
The fun start with nested lists and tuples, as these can be used to create a
matrix. The examples will be given for a two dimensional matrix for easier
understanding, but this also works in higher dimensions.
Extract row a[x]
Given a [(1,2),(3,4)] matrix [0] will give the first row which is (1,2)
Extract row range a[from:to]
Given a [(1,2),(3,4),(5,6),(7,8)] matrix [1:3] will give [(3,4),(5,6)]
Extract column a[x]
Given a [(1,2),(3,4)] matrix [:,0] will give the first column of all rows
which is [1,3]
Extract column range a[:,from:to]
Given a [(1,2,3,4),(5,6,7,8)] matrix [:,1:3] will give [(2,3),(6,7)]
And it works for list of indexes, negative indexes, stepped ranges, reversing,
etc. on all axes in too many ways to show all possibilities.
Basically it's just the indexing and slicing applied on nested constructs,
where each nesting level is separated by a comma.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Compiler directives
Controlling the compile offset and program counter
Two counters are used while assembling.
The compile offset is where the data and code ends up in memory (or in image
file).
The program counter is what labels get set to and what the special star label
refers to. It wraps when the border of a 64 KiB program bank is crossed. The
actual program bank is not incremented, just like on a real processor.
Normally both are the same (code is compiled to the location it runs from) but
it does not need to be.
*= <expression>
The compile offset is adjusted so that the program counter will match the
requested address in the expression.
;Offset PC Bytes Disassembly Source
* = $0800
>0800 .byte
.logical $1000
>0800 1000 .byte
* = $1200
>0a00 1200 .byte
.here
>0a00 .byte
.offs <expression>
Add an offset to the compile offset (create a gap). The program counter
stays the same as before.
Popular in old TASM code where this was the only way to create relocated
code, otherwise it's use is not recommended as there are easier to use
alternatives below.
;Offset PC Bytes Disassembly Source
* = $1000
.1000 nop .byte
.offs 100
.1064 1000 nop .byte
.logical <expression>
.here
Changes the program counter only, the compile offset is not changed. When
finished all continues where it was left off before.
The naming is not logical at all for relocated code, but that's how it was
named in old 6502tass.
It's used for code copied to it's proper location at runtime. Can be nested
of course.
;Offset PC Bytes Disassembly Source
* = $1000
.logical $300
.1000 0300 a9 80 lda #$80 drive lda #$80
.1002 0302 85 00 sta $00 sta $00
.1004 0304 4c 00 03 jmp $0300 jmp drive
.here
.align <expression>[, <fill>]
Align code to a dividable program counter address by inserting
uninitialized memory or repeated bytes.
Usually used to page align data or code to avoid penalty cycles when
indexing or branching.
;Offset PC Bytes Disassembly Source
* = $ffc
>0ffc .align $100
.1000 ee 19 d0 inc $d019 irq inc $d019
>1003 ea .align 4, $ea
.1004 69 01 adc #$01 loop adc #1
Dumping data
Storing numeric values
Multi byte numeric data is stored in the little-endian order, which is the
natural byte order for 65xx processors. Numeric ranges are enforced depending
on the directives used.
When using lists or tuples their content will be used one by one. Uninitialized
data (`?') creates holes of different sizes. Character string constants are
converted using the current encoding.
Please note that multi character strings usually don't fit into 8 bits and
therefore the .byte directive is not appropriate for them. Use .text instead
which accepts strings of any length.
.byte <expression>[, <expression>, ...]
Create bytes from 8 bit unsigned constants (0-255)
.char <expression>[, <expression>, ...]
Create bytes from 8 bit signed constants (-128-127)
>1000 ff 03 .byte 255, $03
>1002 41 .byte "a"
>1003 .byte ? ; reserve 1 byte
>1004 fd .char -3
;Store 4.4 signed fixed point constants
>1005 c8 34 32 .char (-3.5, 3.25, 3.125) * 1p4
;Compact computed jumps using self modifying code
.1008 bd 0f 10 lda $1010,x lda jumps,x
.100b 8d 0e 10 sta $100f sta smod+1
.100e d0 fe bne $100e smod bne *
;Routines nearby (-128-127 bytes)
>1010 23 49 jumps .char (routine1, routine2)-smod-2
.word <expression>[, <expression>, ...]
Create bytes from 16 bit unsigned constants (0-65535)
.sint <expression>[, <expression>, ...]
Create bytes from 16 bit signed constants (-32768-32767)
>1000 42 23 55 45 .word $2342, $4555
>1004 .word ? ; reserve 2 bytes
>1006 eb fd 51 11 .sint -533, 4433
;Store 8.8 signed fixed point constants
>100a 80 fc 40 03 20 03 .sint (-3.5, 3.25, 3.125) * 1p8
.1010 bd 19 10 lda $1019,x lda texts,x
.1013 bc 1a 10 ldy $101a,x ldy texts+1,x
.1016 4c 1e ab jmp $ab1e jmp $ab1e
>1019 33 10 59 10 texts .word text1, text2
.addr <expression>[, <expression>, ...]
Create 16 bit address constants for addresses (in current program bank)
.rta <expression>[, <expression>, ...]
Create 16 bit return address constants for addresses (in current program
bank)
* = $12000
.012000 7c 03 20 jmp ($012003,x) jmp (jumps,x)
>012003 50 20 32 03 92 15 jumps .addr $12050, routine1, routine2
;Computed jumps by using stack (current bank)
* = $103000
.103000 bf 0c 30 10 lda $10300c,x lda rets+1,x
.103004 48 pha pha
.103005 bf 0b 30 10 lda $10300b,x lda rets,x
.103009 48 pha pha
.10300a 60 rts rts
>10300b ff ef a1 36 f3 42 rets .rta $10f000, routine1, routine2
.long <expression>[, <expression>, ...]
Create bytes from 24 bit unsigned constants (0-16777215)
.lint <expression>[, <expression>, ...]
Create bytes from 24 bit signed constants (-8388608-8388607)
>1000 56 34 12 .long $123456
>1003 .long ? ; reserve 3 bytes
>1006 eb fd ff 51 11 00 .lint -533, 4433
;Store 8.16 signed fixed point constants
>100c 5d 8f fc 66 66 03 1e 85 .lint (-3.44, 3.4, 3.52) * 1p16
>1014 03
;Computed long jumps with jump table (65816)
.1015 bd 2a 10 lda $102a,x lda jumps,x
.1018 8d 11 03 sta $0311 sta ind
.101b bd 2b 10 lda $102b,x lda jumps+1,x
.101e 8d 12 03 sta $0312 sta ind+1
.1021 bd 2c 10 lda $102c,x lda jumps+2,x
.1024 8d 13 03 sta $0313 sta ind+2
.1027 dc 11 03 jmp [$0311] jmp [ind]
>102a 32 03 01 92 05 02 jumps .long routine1, routine2
.dword <expression>[, <expression>, ...]
Create bytes from 32 bit constants (0-4294967295)
.dint <expression>[, <expression>, ...]
Create bytes from 32 bit signed constants (-2147483648-2147483647)
>1000 78 56 34 12 .dword $12345678
>1004 .dword ? ; reserve 4 bytes
>1008 5d 7a 79 e7 .dint -411469219
;Store 16.16 signed fixed point constants
>100c 5d 8f fc ff 66 66 03 00 .dint (-3.44, 3.4, 3.52) * 1p16
>1014 1e 85 03 00
Storing string values
The following directives store strings of characters, bytes or bits as bytes.
Small numeric constants can be mixed in to represent single byte control
characters.
When using lists or tuples their content will be used one by one. Uninitialized
data (`?') creates byte sized holes. Character string constants are converted
using the current encoding.
.text <expression>[, <expression>, ...]
Assemble strings into 8 bit bytes.
>1000 4f 45 d5 .text "oeU"
>1003 4f 45 d5 .text 'oeU'
>1006 17 33 .text 23, $33 ; bytes
>1008 0d 0a .text $0a0d ; $0d, $0a, little endian!
>100a 1f .text %00011111; more bytes
.fill <length>[, <fill>]
Reserve space (using uninitialized data), or fill with repeated bytes.
>1000 .fill $100 ;no fill, just reserve $100 bytes
>1100 00 00 00 .fill $4000, 0 ;16384 bytes of 0
...
>5100 55 aa 55 .fill 8000, [$55, $aa];8000 bytes of alternating $55, $aa
...
>7040 ff ff ff .fill $7100 - *, $ff;fill until $7100 with $ff
...
.shift <expression>[, <expression>, ...]
Assemble strings of 7 bit bytes and mark the last byte by setting it's most
significant bit.
Any byte which already has the most significant bit set will cause an
error. The last byte can't be uninitialized or missing of course.
The naming comes from old TASM and is a reference to setting the high bit
of alphabetic letters which results in it's uppercase version in PETSCII.
.1000 a2 00 ldx #$00 ldx #0
.1002 bd 10 10 lda $1010,x loop lda txt,x
.1005 08 php php
.1006 29 7f and #$7f and #$7f
.1008 20 d2 ff jsr $ffd2 jsr $ffd2
.100b e8 inx inx
.100c 28 plp plp
.100d 10 f3 bpl $1002 bpl loop
.100f 60 rts rts
>1010 53 49 4e 47 4c 45 20 53 txt .shift "single", 32, "string"
>1018 54 52 49 4e c7
.shiftl <expression>[, <expression>, ...]
Assemble strings of 7 bit bytes shifted to the left once with the last
byte's least significant bit set.
Any byte which already has the most significant bit set will cause an error
as this is cut off on shifting. The last byte can't be uninitialized or
missing of course.
The naming is a reference to left shifting.
.1000 a2 00 ldx #$00 ldx #0
.1002 bd 0d 10 lda $100d,x loop lda txt,x
.1005 4a lsr a lsr
.1006 9d 00 04 sta $0400,x sta $400,x ;screen memory
.1009 e8 inx inx
.100a 90 f6 bcc $1002 bcc loop
.100c 60 rts rts
.enc "screen"
>100d a6 92 9c 8e 98 8a 40 a6 .shiftl "single", 32, "string"
>1015 a8 a4 92 9c 8f txt .enc "none"
.null <expression>[, <expression>, ...]
Same as .text, but adds a zero byte to the end. An existing zero byte is an
error as it'd cause a false end marker.
.1000 a9 07 lda #$07 lda #<txt
.1002 a0 10 ldy #$10 ldy #>txt
.1004 20 1e ab jsr $ab1e jsr $ab1e
>1007 53 49 4e 47 4c 45 20 53 txt .null "single", 32, "string"
>100f 54 52 49 4e 47 00
.ptext <expression>[, <expression>, ...]
Same as .text, but prepend the number of bytes in front of the string
(pascal style string). Therefore it can't do more than 255 bytes.
.1000 a9 1d lda #$1d lda #<txt
.1002 a2 10 ldx #$10 ldx #>txt
.1004 20 08 10 jsr $1008 jsr print
.1007 60 rts rts
.1008 85 fb sta $fb print sta $fb
.100a 86 fc stx $fc stx $fc
.100c a0 00 ldy #$00 ldy #0
.100e b1 fb lda ($fb),y lda ($fb),y
.1010 f0 0a beq $101c beq null
.1012 aa tax tax
.1013 c8 iny - iny
.1014 b1 fb lda ($fb),y lda ($fb),y
.1016 20 d2 ff jsr $ffd2 jsr $ffd2
.1019 ca dex dex
.101a d0 f7 bne $1013 bne -
.101c 60 rts null rts
>101d 0d 53 49 4e 47 4c 45 20 txt .ptext "single", 32, "string"
>1025 53 54 52 49 4e 47
Text encoding
64tass supports sources written in UTF-8, UTF-16 (be/le) and RAW 8 bit
encoding. To take advantage of this capability custom encodings can be defined
to map Unicode characters to 8 bit values in strings.
.enc "<name>"
Selects text encoding, predefined encodings are `none' and `screen' (screen
code), anything else is user defined. All user encodings start without any
character or escape definitions, add some as required.
.enc "screen";screen code mode
>1000 13 03 12 05 05 0e 20 03 .text "screen codes"
>1008 0f 04 05 13
.100c c9 15 cmp #$15 cmp #"u" ;compare screen code
.enc "none" ;normal mode again
.100e c9 55 cmp #$55 cmp #"u" ;compare PETSCII
.cdef <start>, <end>, <coded> [, <start>, <end>, <coded>, ...]
.cdef "<start><end>", <coded> [, "<start><end>", <coded>, ...]
Assigns characters in a range to single bytes.
This is a simple single character to byte translation definition. It is
applied to a range as characters and bytes are usually assigned
sequentially. The start and end positions are Unicode character codes
either by numbers or by typing them. Overlapping ranges are not allowed.
.enc "ascii" ;define an ascii encoding
.cdef " ~", 32 ;identity for printable
.edef "<escapetext>", <value> [, "<escapetext>", <value>, ...]
Assigns strings to byte sequences as a translated value.
When these substrings are found in a text they are replaced by bytes
defined here. When strings with common prefixes are used the longest match
wins. Useful for defining non-typeable control code aliases, or as a simple
tokenizer.
.enc "petscii" ;define an ascii->petscii encoding
.cdef " @", 32 ;characters
.cdef "AZ", $c1
.cdef "az", $41
.cdef "[[", $5b
.cdef "??", $5c
.cdef "]]", $5d
.cdef "??", $5e
.cdef $2190, $2190, $1f;left arrow
.edef "\n", 13 ;one byte control codes
.edef "{clr}", 147
.edef "{crlf}", [13, 10];two byte control code
.edef "<nothing>", [];replace with no bytes
>1000 93 d4 45 58 54 20 49 4e .text "{clr}Text in PETSCII\n"
>1008 20 d0 c5 d4 d3 c3 c9 c9 0d
Structured data
Structures and unions can be defined to create complex data types. The offset
of fields are available by using the definition's name. The fields themselves
by using the instance name.
The initialization method is very similar to macro parameters, the difference
is that unset parameters always return uninitialized data (`?') instead of an
error.
Structure
Structures are for organizing sequential data, so the length of a structure is
the sum of lengths of all items.
.struct [<name>][=<default>]][, [<name>][=<default>] ...]
.ends [<result>][, <result> ...]
Structure definition, with named parameters and default values
.dstruct <name>[, <initialization values>]
.<name> [<initialization values>]
Create instance of structure with initialization values
.struct ;anonymous structure
x .byte 0 ;labels are visible
y .byte 0 ;content compiled here
.ends ;useful inside unions
nn_s .struct col, row;named structure
x .byte \col ;labels are not visible
y .byte \row ;no content is compiled here
.ends ;it's just a definition
nn .dstruct nn_s, 1, 2;structure instance, content here
lda nn.x ;direct field access
ldy #nn_s.x ;get offset of field
lda nn,y ;and use it indirectly
Union
Unions can be used for overlapping data as the compile offset and program
counter remains the same on each line. Therefore the length of a union is the
length of it's longest item.
.union [<name>][=<default>]][, [<name>][=<default>] ...]
.endu
Union definition, with named parameters and default values
.dunion <name>[, <initialization values>]
.<name> [<initialization values>]
Create instance of union with initialization values
.union ;anonymous union
x .byte 0 ;labels are visible
y .word 0 ;content compiled here
.endu
nn_u .union ;named union
x .byte ? ;labels are not visible
y .word \1 ;no content is compiled here
.endu ;it's just a definition
nn .dunion nn_u, 1 ;union instance here
lda nn.x ;direct field access
ldy #nn_u.x ;get offset of field
lda nn,y ;and use it indirectly
Combined use of structures and unions
The example below shows how to define structure to a binary include.
.union
.binary "pic.drp", 2
.struct
color .fill 1024
screen .fill 1024
bitmap .fill 8000
backg .byte ?
.ends
.endu
Anonymous structures and unions in combination with sections are useful for
overlapping memory assignment. The example below shares zero page allocations
for two separate parts of a bigger program. The common subroutine variables are
assigned after in the `zp' section.
* = $02
.union ;spare some memory
.struct
.dsection zp1 ;declare zp1 section
.ends
.struct
.dsection zp2 ;declare zp2 section
.ends
.endu
.dsection zp ;declare zp section
Macros
Macros can be used to reduce typing of frequently used source lines. Each
invocation is a copy of the macro's content with parameter references replaced
by the parameter texts.
.segment [<name>][=<default>]][, [<name>][=<default>] ...]
.endm [<result>][, <result> ...]
Copies the code segment as it is, so symbols can be used from outside, but
this also means multiple use will result in double defines unless anonymous
labels are used.
.macro [<name>][=<default>]][, [<name>][=<default>] ...]
.endm [<result>][, <result> ...]
The code is enclosed in it's own block so symbols inside are
non-accessible, unless a label is prefixed at the place of use, then local
labels can be accessed through that label.
#<name> [<param>][[,][<param>] ...]
.<name> [<param>][[,][<param>] ...]
Invoke the macro after `#' or `.' with the parameters. Normally the name of
the macro is used, but it can be any expression.
;A simple macro
copy .macro
ldx #size(\1)
lp lda \1,x
sta \2,x
dex
bpl lp
.endm
#copy label, $500
;Use macro as an assembler directive
lohi .macro
lo .byte <(\@)
hi .byte >(\@)
.endm
var .lohi 1234, 5678
lda var.lo,y
ldx var.hi,y
Parameter references
The first 9 parameters can be referenced by `\1'-`\9'. The entire parameter
list including separators is `\@'.
name .macro
lda #\1 ;first parameter 23+1
.endm
#name 23+1 ;call macro
Parameters can be named, and it's possible to set a default value after an
equal sign which is used as a replacement when the parameter is missing.
These named parameters can be referenced by \name or \{name}. Names must match
completely, if unsure use the quoted name reference syntax.
name .macro first, b=2, , last
lda #\first ;first parameter
lda #\b ;second parameter
lda #\3 ;third parameter
lda #\last ;fourth parameter
.endm
#name 1, , 3, 4 ;call macro
Text references
In the original turbo assembler normal references are passed by value and can
only appear in place of one. Text references on the other hand can appear
everywhere and will work in place of e.g. quoted text or opcodes and labels.
The first 9 parameters can be referenced as text by @1-@9.
name .macro
jsr print
.null "Hello @1!";first parameter
.endm
#name "wth?" ;call macro
Custom functions
Beyond the built-in functions mentioned earlier it's possible to define custom
ones for frequently used calculations.
.function <name>[=<default>]][, <name>[=<default>] ...][, *<name>]
.endf [<result>][, <result> ...]
Defines a user function
#<name> [<param>][[,][<param>] ...]
.<name> [<param>][[,][<param>] ...]
<name> [<param>][[,][<param>] ...]
Invoke a function like a macro, directive or pseudo instruction.
Parameters are assigned to constant symbols in the function scope on
invocation. The default values are calculated at function definition time only,
and these values are used at invocation time when a parameter is missing.
Extra parameters are not accepted, unless the last parameter symbol is preceded
with a star, in this case these parameters are collected into a tuple. Multiple
values are returned are also returned as tuple.
Functions can span multiple lines but unlike macros they can't create new code.
Only those external variables and functions are available which were accessible
at the place of definition, but not those at the place of invocation.
wpack .function a, b=0
.endf a+b*256
.word wpack(1), wpack(2, 3)
If a function is used as macro, directive or pseudo instruction and there's a
label in front then the returned value is assigned to it. If nothing is
returned then it's used as regular label. Of course when used like this it can
create code and access local variables.
mva .function s, d
lda s
sta d
.endf
mva #1, label
Conditional assembly
To prevent parts of source from compiling conditional constructs can be used.
This is useful when multiple slightly different versions needs to be compiled
from the same source.
If, else if, else
.if <condition>
Compile if condition is true
.elsif <condition>
Compile if previous conditions were not met and the condition is true
.else
Compile if previous conditions were not met
.fi
.endif
End of conditional compilation
.ifne <value>
Compile if value is not zero
.ifeq <value>
Compile if value is zero
.ifpl <value>
Compile if value is greater or equal zero
.ifmi <value>
Compile if value is less than zero
The .ifne, .ifeq, .ifpl and .ifmi directives exists for compatibility only, in
practice it's better to use comparison operators instead.
.if wait==2 ;2 cycles
nop
.elsif wait==3 ;3 cycles
bit $ea
.elsif wait==4 ;4 cycles
bit $eaea
.else ;else 5 cycles
inc $2
.fi
Switch, case, default
Similar to the .if/.elsif/.else/.fi construct, but the compared value needs to
be written only once in the switch statement.
.switch <expression>
Evaluate expression and remember it
.case <expression>[, <expression> ...]
Compile if the previous conditions were all skipped and one of the values
equals
.default
Compile if the previous conditions were all skipped
.endswitch
End of conditional compile
.switch wait
.case 2 ;2 cycles
nop
.case 3 ;3 cycles
bit $ea
.case 4 ;4 cycles
bit $eaea
.default ;else 5 cycles
inc $2
.endswitch
Repetitions
.for [<assignment>], [<condition>], [<assignment>]
.next
Loop while the condition is true. If there's no condition then it's an
infinite loop and .break must be used to terminate it.
ldx #0
lda #32
lp .for ue = $400, ue < $800, ue += $100
sta ue,x
.next
dex
bne lp
.rept <expression>
.next
Repeat by expression number of times.
.rept 100
nop
.next
.break
Exit current loop immediately
.continue
Continue current loop's next iteration
.lbl
Creates a special jump label that can be referenced by .goto
.goto <labelname>
Causes assembler to continue assembling from the jump label. No forward
references of course, handle with care. Should only be used in classic TASM
sources for creating loops.
i .var 100
loop .lbl
nop
i .var i - 1
.ifne i
.goto loop ;generates 100 nops
.fi ;the hard way ;)
Including files
Longer sources are usually separated into multiple files for easier handling.
Precomputed binary data can also be included directly without converting it
into source code first.
Search path is relative to the location of current source file. If it's not
found there the include search path is consulted for further possible
locations.
To make your sources portable please always use forward slashes (/) as a
directory separator and use lower/uppercase consistently in file names!
.include <filename>
Include source file here.
.binclude <filename>
Include source file here in it's local block. If the directive is prefixed
with a label then all labels are local and are accessible through that
label only, otherwise not reachable at all.
.include "macros.asm" ;include macros
menu .binclude "menu.asm" ;include in a block
jmp menu.start
.binary <filename>[, <offset>[, <length>]]
Include raw binary data from file. By using offset and length it's possible
to break out chunks of data from a file separately, like bitmap and colors
for example.
.binary "stuffz.bin" ;simple include, all bytes
.binary "stuffz.bin", 2 ;skip start address
.binary "stuffz.bin", 2, 1000;skip start address, 1000 bytes max
* = $1000 ;load music to $1000 and
.binary "music.sid", $7e ;strip SID header
Scopes
Scopes may contain symbols or other scopes nested. They are useful to avoid
symbol clashes as the same symbol name can repeated as long as it's in a
different scope.
In nested scopes the symbol lookup starts from the local scope and goes in the
direction of the global scope. This means that local variables will `shadow'
global one with the same name.
.proc
.pend
Procedure start and end of procedure.
If it's label is not used then the code won't be compiled at all. This is
very useful to avoid a lot of .if blocks to exclude unused sections of
code.
All labels inside are local enclosed in a scope and are accessible through
the prefixed label. Useful for building libraries.
ize .proc
nop
cucc nop
.pend
jsr ize
jmp ize.cucc
.block
.bend
Block start and block end.
All labels inside a block are local enclosed in a scope. If prefixed with a
label local variables are accessible through that label using the dot
notation, otherwise not at all.
.block
inc count + 1
count ldx #0
.bend
.weak
.endweak
Weak symbol area
Any symbols defined inside can be overridden by `stronger' symbols in the
same scope from outside. Can be nested as necessary.
This gives the possibility of giving default values for symbols which might
not always exist without resorting to .ifdef/.ifndef or similar directives
in other assemblers.
symbol = 1 ;stronger symbol than the one below
.weak
symbol = 0 ;default value if the one above does not exists
.endweak
.if symbol ;almost like an .ifdef ;)
Other use of weak symbols might be in included libraries to change default
values or replace stub functions and data structures.
If these stubs are defined using .proc/.pend then their default
implementations will not even exists in the output at all when a stronger
symbol overrides them.
Multiple definition of a symbol with the same `strength' in the same scope
is of course not allowed and it results in double definition error.
Please note that .ifdef/.ifndef directives are left out from 64tass for of
technical reasons, so don't wait for them to appear anytime soon.
Sections
Sections can be used to collect data or code into separate memory areas without
moving source code lines around. This is achieved by having separate compile
offset and program counters for each defined section.
.section <name>
.send [<name>]
Defines a section fragment. The name at .send must match but it's optional.
.dsection <name>
Collect the section fragments here.
All .section fragments are compiled to the memory area allocated by the
.dsection directive. Compilation happens as the code appears, this directive
only assigns enough space to hold all the content in the section fragments.
The space used by section fragments is calculated from the difference of
starting compile offset and the maximum compile offset reached. It is possible
to manipulate the compile offset in fragments, but putting code before the
start of .dsection is not allowed.
* = $02
.dsection zp ;declare zero page section
.cerror * > $30, "Too many zero page variables"
* = $334
.dsection bss ;declare uninitialized variable section
.cerror * > $400, "Too many variables"
* = $0801
.dsection code ;declare code section
.cerror * > $1000, "Program too long!"
* = $1000
.dsection data ;declare data section
.cerror * > $2000, "Data too long!"
;--------------------
.section code
.word ss, 2005
.null $9e, format("%d", start)
ss .word 0
start sei
.section zp ;declare some new zero page variables
p2 .word ? ;a pointer
.send zp
.section bss ;new variables
buffer .fill 10 ;temporary area
.send bss
lda (p2),y
lda #<label
ldy #>label
jsr print
.section data ;some data
label .null "message"
.send data
jmp error
.section zp ;declare some more zero page variables
p3 .word ? ;a pointer
.send zp
.send code
The compiled code will look like:
>0801 0b 08 d5 07 .word ss, 2005
>0805 9e 32 30 36 31 00 .null $9e, format("%d", start)
>080b 00 00 ss .word 0
.080d 78 start sei
>0002 p2 .word ? ;a pointer
>0334 buffer .fill 10 ;temporary area
.080e b1 02 lda (p2),y
.0810 a9 00 lda #<label
.0812 a0 10 ldy #>label
.0814 20 1e ab jsr print
>1000 6d 65 73 73 61 67 65 00 label .null "message"
.0817 4c e2 fc jmp error
>0004 p2 .word ? ;a pointer
Sections can form a hierarchy by nesting a .dsection into another section. The
section names must only be unique within a section but can be reused otherwise.
Parent section names are visible for children, siblings can be reached through
parents.
In the following example the included sources don't have to know which `code'
and `data' sections they use, while the `bss' section is shared for all banks.
;First 8K bank at the beginning, PC at $8000
* = $0000
.logical $8000
.dsection bank1
.cerror * > $a000, "Bank1 too long"
.here
bank1 .block ;Make all symbols local
.section bank1
.dsection code ;Code and data sections in bank1
.dsection data
.section code ;Pre-open code section
.include "code.asm"; see below
.include "iter.asm"
.send code
.send bank1
.bend
;Second 8K bank at $2000, PC at $8000
* = $2000
.logical $8000
.dsection bank2
.cerror * > $a000, "Bank2 too long"
.here
bank2 .block ;Make all symbols local
.section bank2
.dsection code ;Code and data sections in bank2
.dsection data
.section code ;Pre-open code section
.include "scr.asm"
.send code
.send bank2
.bend
;Common data, avoid initialized variables here!
* = $c000
.dsection bss
.cerror * > $d000, "Too much common data"
;------------- The following is in "code.asm"
code sei
.section bss ;Common data section
buffer .fill 10
.send bss
.section data ;Data section (in bank1)
routine .word print
.send bss
65816 related
.as
.al
Select short (8 bit) or long (16 bit) accumulator immediate constants.
.al
lda #$4322
.xs
.xl
Select short (8 bit) or long (16 bit) index register immediate constants.
.xl
ldx #$1000
.autsiz
.mansiz
Select automatic adjustment of immediate constant sizes based on SEP/REP
instructions.
.autsiz
rep #$10 ;implicit .xl
ldx #$1000
.databank <expression>
Data bank (absolute) addressing is only used for addresses falling into
this 64 KiB bank. The default is 0, which means addresses in bank zero.
When data bank is switched off only data bank indexed (,b) addresses create
data bank accessing instructions.
.databank $10 ;data bank at $10xxxx
lda $101234 ;results in $ad, $34, $12
.databank ? ;no data bank
lda $1234 ;direct page or long addressing
lda #$1234,b ;results in $ad, $34, $12
.dpage <expression>
Direct (zero) page addressing is only used for addresses falling into a
specific 256 byte address range. The default is 0, which is the first page
of bank zero.
When direct page is switched off only the direct page indexed (,d)
addresses create direct page accessing instructions.
.dpage $400 ;direct page $400-$4ff
lda $456 ;results in $a5, $56
.dpage ? ;no direct page
lda $56 ;data bank or long addressing
lda #$56,d ;results in $a5, $56
Controlling errors
.page
.endp
Gives an error on page boundary crossing, e.g. for timing sensitive code.
.page
table .byte 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
.endp
.option allow_branch_across_page
Switches error generation on page boundary crossing during relative branch.
Such a condition on 6502 adds 1 extra cycle to the execution time, which
can ruin the timing of a carefully cycle counted code.
.option allow_branch_across_page = 0
ldx #3 ;now this will execute in
- dex ;16 cycles for sure
bne -
.option allow_branch_across_page = 1
.error <message> [, <message>, ...]
.cerror <condition>, <message> [, <message>, ...]
Exit with error or conditionally exit with error
.error "Unfinished here..."
.cerror * > $1200, "Program too long by ", * - $1200, " bytes"
.warn <message> [, <message>, ...]
.cwarn <condition>, <message> [, <message>, ...]
Display a warning message always or depending on a condition
.warn "FIXME: handle negative values too!"
.cwarn * > $1200, "This may not work!"
Target
.cpu <expression>
Selects CPU according to the string argument.
.cpu "6502" ;standard 65xx
.cpu "65c02" ;CMOS 65C02
.cpu "65ce02" ;CSG 65CE02
.cpu "6502i" ;NMOS 65xx
.cpu "65816" ;W65C816
.cpu "65dtv02" ;65dtv02
.cpu "65el02" ;65el02
.cpu "r65c02" ;R65C02
.cpu "w65c02" ;W65C02
.cpu "4510" ;CSG 4510
.cpu "default" ;cpu set on commandline
Misc
.end
Terminate assembly. Any content after this directive is ignored.
.eor <expression>
XOR output with a 8 bit value. Useful for reverse screen code text for
example, or for silly `encryption'.
.seed <expression>
Seed the pseudo random number generator with an unsigned integer of maximum
128 bits to make the generated numbers less boring.
.var <expression>
Defines a variable identified by the label preceding, which is set to the
value of expression or reference of variable.
.comment
.endc
Comment block start and comment block end.
.comment
lda #1 ;this won't be compiled
sta $d020
.endc
.assert
.check
Do not use these, the syntax will change in next version!
Printer control
.pron
.proff
Turn on or off source listing on part of the file.
.proff ;Don't put filler bytes into listing
* = $8000
.fill $2000, $ff ;Pre-fill ROM area
.pron
* = $8000
.word reset, restore
.text "CBM80"
reset cld
.hidemac
.showmac
Ignored for compatibility.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Pseudo instructions
Aliases
For better code readability BCC has an alias named BLT (Branch Less Than) and
BCS one named BGE (Branch Greater Equal).
cmp #3
blt exit ; less than 3?
For similar reasons ASL has an alias named SHL (SHift Left) and LSR one named
SHR (SHift Right). This naming however is not very common.
The implied variants LSR, ROR, ASL and ROL are a shorthand for LSR A, ROR A,
ASL A and ROL A. Using the implied form is considered poor coding style.
For compatibility INA and DEA is a shorthand of INC A and DEC A. Therefore
there's no `implied' variants like INC or DEC. The full form with the
accumulator is preferred.
The longer forms of INC X, DEC X, INC Y, DEC Y, INC Z and DEC Z are available
for INX, DEX, INY, DEY, INZ and DEZ. For this to work care must be taken to not
reuse the `x', `y' and `z' single letter register symbols for other purposes.
Same goes for `a' of course.
Load instructions with registers are translated to transfer instructions. For
example LDA X becomes TXA.
Store instructions with registers are translated to transfer instructions, but
only if it involves the `s' or `b' registers. For example STX S becomes TXS.
Many illegal opcodes have aliases for compatibility as there's no standard
naming convention.
Always taken branches
For writing short code there are some special pseudo instructions for always
taken branches. These are automatically compiled as relative branches when the
jump distance is short enough and as JMP or BRL when longer.
The names are derived from conditional branches and are: GEQ, GNE, GCC, GCS,
GPL, GMI, GVC, GVS, GLT and GGE.
.0000 a9 03 lda #$03 in1 lda #3
.0002 d0 02 bne $0006 gne at ;branch always
.0004 a9 02 lda #$02 in2 lda #2
.0006 4c 00 10 jmp $1000 at gne $1000 ;branch further
If the branch would skip only one byte then the opposite condition is compiled
and only the first byte is emitted. This is now a never executed jump, and the
relative distance byte after the opcode is the jumped over byte. If the CPU has
long conditional branches (65CE02/4510) then the same method is applied to two
byte skips as well.
There's a pseudo opcode called GRA for CPUs supporting BRA, which is expanded
to BRL (if available) or JMP. A one byte skip will be shortened to a single
byte if the CPU has a NOP immediate instruction (R65C02/W65C02).
If the branch would not skip anything at all then no code is generated.
.0009 geq in3 ;zero length "branch"
.0009 18 clc in3 clc
.000a b0 bcs gcc at2 ;one byte skip, as bcs
.000b 38 sec in4 sec ;sec is skipped!
.000c 20 0f 00 jsr $000f at2 jsr func
.000f func
Please note that expressions like Gxx *+2 or Gxx *+3 are not allowed as the
compiler can't figure out if it has to create no code at all, the 1 byte
variant or the 2 byte one. Therefore use normal or anonymous labels defined
after the jump instruction when jumping forward!
Long branches
To avoid branch too long errors the assembler also supports long branches. It
can automatically convert conditional relative branches to it's opposite and a
JMP or BRL. This can be enabled on the command line using the `--long-branch'
option.
.0000 ea nop nop
.0001 b0 03 bcs $0006 bcc $1000 ;long branch (6502)
.0003 4c 00 10 jmp $1000
.0006 1f 17 03 bbr 1,$17,$000c bbs 1,23,$1000 ;long branch (R65C02)
.0009 4c 00 10 jmp $1000
.000c d0 04 bne $0012 beq $10000 ;long branch (65816)
.000e 5c 00 00 01 jmp $010000
.0012 30 03 bmi $0017 bpl $1000 ;long branch (65816)
.0014 82 e9 lf brl $1000
.0017 ea nop nop
Please note that forward jump expressions like Bxx *+130, Bxx *+131 and Bxx
*+132 are not allowed as the compiler can't decide between a short/long branch.
Of course these destinations can be used, but only with normal or anonymous
labels defined after the jump instruction.
In the above example extra JMP instructions are emitted for each long branch.
This is suboptimal and wasting space if there are several long branches to the
same location in close proximity. Therefore the assembler might decide to reuse
a JMP for more than one long branch to save space.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Original turbo assembler compatibility
How to convert source code for use with 64tass
Currently there are two options, either use `TMPview' by Style to convert the
source file directly, or do the following:
* load turbo assembler, start (by SYS 9*4096 or SYS 8*4096 depending on
version)
* <- then l to load a source file
* <- then w to write a source file in PETSCII format
* convert the result to ASCII using petcat (from the vice package)
The resulting file should then (with the restrictions below) assemble using the
following command line:
64tass -C -T -a -W -i source.asm -o outfile.prg
Differences to the original turbo ass macro on the C64
64tass is nearly 100% compatible with the original `Turbo Assembler', and
supports most of the features of the original `Turbo Assembler Macro'. The
remaining notable differences are listed here.
Labels
The original turbo assembler uses case sensitive labels, use the `
--case-sensitive' command line option to enable this behaviour.
Expression evaluation
There are a few differences which can be worked around by the `
--tasm-compatible' command line option. These are:
The original expression parser has no operator precedence, but 64tass has. That
means that you will have to fix expressions using braces accordingly, for
example 1+2*3 becomes (1+2)*3.
The following operators used by the original Turbo Assembler are different:
TASM Operator differences
. bitwise or, now |
: bitwise eor, now ^
! force 16 bit address, now @w
The default expression evaluation is not limited to 16 bit unsigned numbers
anymore.
Macros
Macro parameters are referenced by `\1'-`\9' instead of using the pound sign.
Parameters are always copied as text into the macro and not passed by value as
the original turbo assembler does, which sometimes may lead to unexpected
behaviour. You may need to make use of braces around arguments and/or
references to fix this.
Bugs
Some versions of the original turbo assembler had bugs that are not reproduced
by 64tass, you will have to fix the code instead.
In some versions labels used in the first .block are globally available. If you
get a related error move the respective label out of the .block.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Command line options
Short command line options consist of `-' and a letter, long options start with
`--'.
If `--' is encountered then further options are not recognized and are assumed
to be file names.
Options requiring file names are marked with `<filename>'. A single `-' as name
means standard input or output. File name quoting is system specific.
`@filename' can be used to read additional command line options from a file.
Options must be separated with white space. White space can be included by
single or double quotes. A backslash quotes a single character and must be
quoted by itself.
Output options
-o <filename>, --output <filename>
Place output into <filename>. The default output filename is `a.out'. This
option changes it.
64tass a.asm -o a.prg
-X, --long-address
Use 3 byte address/length for CBM and nonlinear output instead of 2 bytes.
Also increases the size of raw output to 16 MiB.
64tass --long-address --m65816 a.asm
--cbm-prg
Generate CBM format binaries (default)
The first 2 bytes are the little endian address of the first valid byte
(start address). Overlapping blocks are flattened and uninitialized memory
is filled up with zeros. Uninitialized memory before the first and after
the last valid bytes are not saved. Up to 64 KiB or 16 MiB with long
address.
Used for C64 binaries.
-b, --nostart
Output raw data without start address.
Overlapping blocks are flattened and uninitialized memory is filled up with
zeros. Uninitialized memory before the first and after the last valid bytes
are not saved. Up to 64 KiB or 16 MiB with long address.
Useful for small ROM files.
-f, --flat
Flat address space output mode.
Overlapping blocks are flattened and uninitialized memory is filled up with
zeros. Uninitialized memory after the last valid byte is not saved. Up to
4 GiB.
Useful for creating huge multi bank ROM files. See sections for an example.
-n, --nonlinear
Generate nonlinear output file.
Overlapping blocks are flattened. Blocks are saved in sorted order and
uninitialized memory is skipped. Up to 64 KiB or 16 MiB with long address.
Used for linkers and downloading.
64tass --nonlinear a.asm
* = $1000
lda #2
* = $2000
nop
Result of compilation
$02, $00 little endian length, 2 bytes
$00, $10 little endian start $1000
$a9, $02 code
$01, $00 little endian length, 1 byte
$00, $20 little endian start $2000
$ea code
$00, $00 end marker (length=0)
--atari-xex
Generate a Atari XEX output file.
Overlapping blocks are kept, continuing blocks are concatenated. Saving
happens in the definition order without sorting, and uninitialized memory
is skipped in the output. Up to 64 KiB.
Used for Atari executables.
64tass --atari-xex a.asm
* = $02e0
.word start ;run address
* = $2000
start rts
Result of compilation
$ff, $ff header, 2 bytes
$e0, $02 little endian start $02e0
$e1, $02 little endian last byte $02e1
$00, $20 start address word
$00, $20 little endian start $2000
$00, $20 little endian last byte $2000
$60 code
--apple2
Generate a Apple II output file (DOS 3.3).
Overlapping blocks are flattened and uninitialized memory is filled up with
zeros. Uninitialized memory before the first and after the last valid bytes
are not saved. Up to 64 KiB.
Used for Apple II executables.
64tass --apple-ii a.asm
* = $0c00
rts
Result of compilation
$00, $0c little endian start $0c00
$01, $00 little endian length $0001
$60 code
--intel-hex
Use Intel HEX output file format.
Overlapping blocks are kept, data is stored in the definition order, and
uninitialized areas are skipped. I8HEX up to 64 KiB, I32HEX up to 4 GiB.
Used for EPROM programming or downloading.
64tass --intel-hex a.asm
* = $0c00
rts
Result of compilation:
:010C00006093
:00000001FF
--s-record
Use Motorola S-record output file format.
Overlapping blocks are kept, data is stored in the definition order, and
uninitialized memory areas are skipped. S19 up to 64 KiB, S28 up to 16 MiB
and S37 up to 4 GiB.
Used for EPROM programming or downloading.
64tass --s-record a.asm
* = $0c00
rts
Result of compilation:
S1040C00608F
S9030C00F0
Operation options
-a, --ascii
Use ASCII/Unicode text encoding instead of raw 8-bit
Normally no conversion takes place, this is for backwards compatibility
with a DOS based Turbo Assembler editor, which could create PETSCII files
for 6502tass. (including control characters of course)
Using this option will change the default `none' and `screen' encodings to
map 'a'-'z' and 'A'-'Z' into the correct PETSCII range of $41-$5A and
$C1-$DA, which is more suitable for an ASCII editor. It also adds
predefined petcat style PETSCII literals to the default encodings, and
enables Unicode letters in symbol names.
For writing sources in UTF-8/UTF-16 encodings this option is required!
64tass a.asm
.0000 a9 61 lda #$61 lda #"a"
>0002 31 61 41 .text "1aA"
>0005 7b 63 6c 65 61 72 7d 74 .text "{clear}text{return}more"
>000e 65 78 74 7b 72 65 74 75
>0016 72 6e 7d 6d 6f 72 65
64tass --ascii a.asm
.0000 a9 41 lda #$41 lda #"a"
>0002 31 41 c1 .text "1aA"
>0005 93 54 45 58 54 0d 4d 4f .text "{clear}text{return}more"
>000e 52 45
-B, --long-branch
Automatic BXX *+5 JMP xxx. Branch too long messages are usually solved by
manually rewriting them as BXX *+5 JMP xxx. 64tass can do this
automatically if this option is used. BRA is of course not converted.
64tass a.asm
* = $1000
bcc $1233 ;error...
64tass a.asm
* = $1000
bcs *+5 ;opposite condition
jmp $1233 ;as simple workaround
64tass --long-branch a.asm
* = $1000
bcc $1233 ;no error, automatically converted to the above one.
-C, --case-sensitive
Make all symbols (variables, opcodes, directives, operators, etc.) case
sensitive. Otherwise everything is case insensitive by default.
64tass a.asm
label nop
Label nop ;double defined...
64tass --case-sensitive a.asm
label nop
Label nop ;Ok, it's a different label...
-D <label>=<value>
Define <label> to <value>. Defines a label to a value. Same syntax is
allowed as in source files. Be careful with string quoting, the shell might
eat some of the characters.
64tass -D ii=2 a.asm
lda #ii ;result: $a9, $02
-w, --no-warn
Suppress warnings. Disables warnings during compile.
64tass --no-warn a.asm
--no-caret-diag
Suppress displaying of faulty source line and fault position after fault
messages.
64tass --no-caret-diag a.asm
-q, --quiet
Suppress messages. Disables header and summary messages.
64tass --quiet a.asm
-T, --tasm-compatible
Enable TASM compatible operators and precedence
Switches the expression evaluator into compatibility mode. This enables
`.', `:' and `!' operators and disables 64tass specific extensions,
disables precedence handling and forces 16 bit unsigned evaluation (see
`differences to original Turbo Assembler' below)
-I <path>
Specify include search path
If an included source or binary file can't be found in the directory of the
source file then this path is tried. More than one directories can be
specified by repeating this option. If multiple matches exist the first one
is used.
-M <file>
Specify make rule output file
Writes a dependency rule suitable for `make' from the list of files used
during compilation.
-E <file>, --error <file>
Specify error output file
Normally compilation errors a written to the standard error output. It's
possible to redirect them to a file or to the standard output by using `-'
as the file name.
Diagnostic options
Diagnostic message switched start with a `-W' and can have an optional `no-'
prefix to disable them. The options below with this prefix are enabled by
default, the others are disabled.
-Wall
Enable most diagnostic warnings, except those individually disabled. Or
with the `no-' prefix disable all except those enabled.
-Werror
Make all diagnostic warnings to an error, except those individually set to
a warning.
-Werror=<name>
Change a diagnostic warning to an error.
For example `-Werror=implied-reg' makes this check an error. The
`-Wno-error=' variant is useful with `-Werror' to set some to warnings.
-Walias
Warns about alias opcodes.
There are several opcodes for the same task, especially for the "6502i"
target.
-Wbranch-page
Warns if a branch is crossing a page.
Page crossing branches execute with a penalty cycle. This option helps to
locate them easily.
-Wcase-symbol
Warn if symbol letter case is used inconsistently.
This option can be used to enforce letter case matching of symbols in case
insensitive mode. This gives similar results to the case sensitive mode
(symbols must match exactly) with the main difference of disallowing symbol
name definitions differing only in case (these are reported as duplicates).
-Wimmediate
Warns for cases where immediate addressing is more likely.
It may be hard to notice if a `#' was missed. The code still compiles but
there's a huge difference between `cpx #const' and `cpx const'. Unless the
right sort of garbage was on zero page at the time of testing...
This check might have a lot of false positives if zero page locations are
accessed by using small numbers, which is a popular coding style. But there
are ways to reduce them.
For "known" fixed locations address(x) can be used, preferably bound to a
symbol. Automatic allocation of zero page variables works too (e.g. zpstuff
.byte ?). And basically everything which is a traditional "label" or
derived from a label with an offset.
-Wimplied-reg
Warns if implied addressing is used instead of register.
Some instructions have implied aliases like `asl' for `asl a' for
compatibility reasons, but this shorthand is not the preferred form.
-Wleading-zeros
Warns if about leading zeros.
A leading zero could be a prefix for an octal number but as octals are not
supported the result will be decimal.
-Wlong-branch
Warns when a long branch is used.
This option gives a warning for instructions which were modified by the
long branch function. Less intrusive than disabling long branches and see
where it fails.
-Wno-deprecated
Don't warn about deprecated features.
Unfortunately there were some features added previously which shouldn't
have been included. This option disables warnings about their uses.
-Wno-float-compare
Don't warn if floating point comparisons are only approximate.
Floating point numbers have a finite precision and comparing them might
give unexpected results.
For example 2.1 + 0.2 == 2.3 is true but gives a warning as the left side
is actually bigger by approximately 4.44E-16.
Normally this is solved by rounding or changing the comparison values.
-Wno-ignored
Don't warn about ignored directives.
-Wno-jmp-bug
Don't warn about the jmp ($xxff) bug.
With this option it's fine that the high byte is read from the `wrong'
address on a 6502, NMOS 6502 and 65DTV02.
-Wno-label-left
Don't warn about certain labels not being on left side.
You may disable this if you use labels which look like mistyped versions of
implied addressing mode instructions and you don't want to put them in the
first column.
This check is there to catch typos, unsupported implied instructions, or
unknown aliases and not for enforcing label placement.
-Wno-mem-wrap
Don't warn for compile offset wrap around.
Continue from the beginning of image file once it's end was reached.
-Wno-pc-wrap
Don't warn for program counter wrap around.
Continue from the beginning of program bank once it's end was reached.
-Wno-pitfalls
Don't note about common pitfalls.
There are some common mistakes, but experts and those who read this don't
need extra notes about them. These are:
Use multi character strings with `.byte' instead of `.text'.
This fails because `.byte' enforces the 0-255 range for each value.
Using `label *=*+1' style space reservations.
Warns as `*=' is also the compound multiply operator. The `*=*+1' needs
to be on a separate line without a label. A better alternatively is to
use `.fill 1' or `.byte ?'.
Negative numbers with `.byte' or `.word'
There are other directives which accept them with proper range checks
like `.char', `.sint'.
Negative numbers with `lda #xxx'
There's a signed variant for the immediate addressing so `lda #+xx'
will make it work
-Wno-star-assign
Don't warn about ignored compound multiply.
Normally `symbol *= ...' means compound multiply of the variable in front.
Unfortunately this looks the same a `label *=*+x' which is an old-school
way to allocate space.
If the symbol was a variable defined earlier then the multiply is performed
without a warning. If it's a new label definition then this warning is used
to note that maybe a variable definition was missed earlier.
If the intention was really a label definition then the `*=' can be moved
to a separate line, or in case of space allocation it could be improved to
use `.byte ?' or `.fill x'.
-Wold-equal
Warn about old equal operator.
The single `=' operator is only there for compatibility reasons and should
be written as `==' normally.
-Woptimize
Warn about optimizable code.
Warns on things that could be optimized, at least according to the limited
analysis done. Currently it's easy to fool with these constructs:
+ Self modifying code, especially modifying immediate addressing mode
instructions or branch targets
+ Using .byte $2c and similar tricks to skip instructions.
+ Using *+5 and similar tricks to skip instructions, or to loop like *-1.
+ Any other method of flow control not involving referenced labels. E.g.
calculated returns.
+ Register re-mappings on 65DTV02 with SIR and SAC.
It's also rather simple and conservative, so some opportunities will be
missed. Most CPUs are supported with the notable exception of 65816 and
65EL02, but this could improve in later versions.
-Wno-portable
Don't warn about source portability problems.
These cross platform development annoyances are checked for:
+ Case insensitive use of file names or use of short names.
+ Use of backslashes for path separation instead of forward slashes.
+ Use of reserved characters in file names.
+ Absolute paths
-Wshadow
Warn about symbol shadowing.
Checks if local variables `shadow' other variables of same name in upper
scopes in ambiguous ways.
This is useful to detect hard to notice bugs where a new local variable
takes the place of a global one by mistake.
bl .block
a .byte 2 ;'a' is a built-in register
x .byte 2 ;'x' is a built-in register
asl a ; accumulator or the byte above?
.end
asl bl.x ; not ambiguous
-Wstrict-bool
Warn about implicit boolean conversions.
Boolean values can be interpreted as numeric 0/1 and other types as
booleans. This is convenient but may cause mistakes.
To pass this option the following constructs need improvements:
+ `1' and `0' as boolean constants. Use the slightly longer `true' and
`false'.
+ Implicit non-zero checks. Write it out like `.if (lbl & 1) != 0'.
+ Zero checks with `!'. Write it out like `lbl == 0'.
+ Binary operators on booleans. Use the proper `||', `&&' and `^^'
operators.
+ Numeric expressions like `1 + (lbl > 3)'. It's better as `(lbl > 3) ? 2
: 1'.
-Wswitch-case
Warn about multiple switch case matches
A switch value can match several case conditions but only the first
occurance will compile. A second match might be a mistake.
-Wunused
Warn about unused constant symbols.
Symbols which have no references to them are likely redundant. Before
removing them check if there's any conditionally compiled out code which
might still need them.
The following options can be used to be more specific:
-Wunused-macro
Warn about unused macros.
-Wunused-const
Warn about unused constants.
-Wunused-label
Warn about unused labels.
-Wunused-variable
Warn about unused variables.
Target selection on command line
These options will select the default architecture. It can be overridden by
using the .cpu directive in the source.
--m65xx
Standard 65xx (default). For writing compatible code, no extra codes. This
is the default.
64tass --m65xx a.asm
lda $14 ;regular instructions
-c, --m65c02
CMOS 65C02. Enables extra opcodes and addressing modes specific to this
CPU.
64tass --m65c02 a.asm
stz $d020 ;65c02 instruction
--m65ce02
CSG 65CE02. Enables extra opcodes and addressing modes specific to this
CPU.
64tass --m65ce02 a.asm
inz
-i, --m6502
NMOS 65xx. Enables extra illegal opcodes. Useful for demo coding for C64,
disk drive code, etc.
64tass --m6502 a.asm
lax $14 ;illegal instruction
-t, --m65dtv02
65DTV02. Enables extra opcodes specific to DTV.
64tass --m65dtv02 a.asm
sac #$00
-x, --m65816
W65C816. Enables extra opcodes. Useful for SuperCPU projects.
64tass --m65816 a.asm
lda $123456,x
-e, --m65el02
65EL02. Enables extra opcodes, useful RedPower CPU projects. Probably
you'll need `--nostart' as well.
64tass --m65el02 a.asm
lda #0,r
--mr65c02
R65C02. Enables extra opcodes and addressing modes specific to this CPU.
64tass --mr65c02 a.asm
rmb 7,$20
--mw65c02
W65C02. Enables extra opcodes and addressing modes specific to this CPU.
64tass --mw65c02 a.asm
wai
--m4510
CSG 4510. Enables extra opcodes and addressing modes specific to this CPU.
Useful for C65 projects.
64tass --m4510 a.asm
map
eom
Symbol listing
-l <file>, --labels=<file>
List symbols into <file>.
64tass -l labels.txt a.asm
* = $1000
label jmp label
result (labels.txt):
label = $1000
This option may be used multiple times. In this case the format and root
scope options must be placed before using this option.
64tass --vice-labels -l all.l --labels-root=export -l myexport.inc source.asm
This writes symbols for VICE into `all.l' and symbols from scope `export'
into `myexport.inc'.
--vice-labels
List labels in a VICE readable format.
This format may be used to translate memory locations to something readable
in VICE monitor. Therefore simple numeric constants will not show up unless
converted to an address first.
VICE symbols may only contain ASCII letters, numbers and underscore.
Symbols not meeting this requirement will be omitted.
64tass --vice-labels -l labels.l a.asm
* = $1000
label jmp label
result (labels.l):
al 1000 .label
For now colons are used as scope delimiter due to a VICE limitation, but
this will be changed to dots in the future.
--dump-labels
List labels for debugging.
The output will contain symbol locations and paths.
--labels-root=<path>
Specify the scope to list labels from
This option can be used to limit the output to only a subset of labels. The
parameter is a dot separated path to a scope started from the global scope.
Assembly listing
-L <file>, --list=<file>
List into <file>. Dumps source code and compiled code into file. Useful for
debugging, it's much easier to identify the code in memory within the
source files.
; 64tass Turbo Assembler Macro V1.5x listing file
; 64tass -L list.txt a.asm
; Fri Dec 9 19:08:55 2005
;Offset ;Hex ;Monitor ;Source
;****** Processing input file: a.asm
.1000 a2 00 ldx #$00 ldx #0
.1002 ca dex loop dex
.1003 d0 fd bne $1002 bne loop
.1005 60 rts rts
;****** End of listing
-m, --no-monitor
Don't put monitor code into listing. There won't be any monitor listing in
the list file.
; 64tass Turbo Assembler Macro V1.5x listing file
; 64tass --no-monitor -L list.txt a.asm
; Fri Dec 9 19:11:43 2005
;Offset ;Hex ;Source
;****** Processing input file: a.asm
.1000 a2 00 ldx #0
.1002 ca loop dex
.1003 d0 fd bne loop
.1005 60 rts
;****** End of listing
-s, --no-source
Don't put source code into listing. There won't be any source listing in
the list file.
; 64tass Turbo Assembler Macro V1.5x listing file
; 64tass --no-source -L list.txt a.asm
; Fri Dec 9 19:13:25 2005
;Offset ;Hex ;Monitor
;****** Processing input file: a.asm
.1000 a2 00 ldx #$00
.1002 ca dex
.1003 d0 fd bne $1002
.1005 60 rts
;****** End of listing
--line-numbers
This option creates a new column for showing line numbers for easier
identification of source origin. The line number is followed with an
optional colon separated file number in case it comes from a different file
then the previous lines.
; 64tass Turbo Assembler Macro V1.5x listing file
; 64tass --line-numbers -L list.txt a.asm
; Fri Dec 9 19:13:25 2005
;Line ;Offset ;Hex ;Monitor ;Source
:1 ;****** Processing input file: a.asm
3 .1000 a2 00 ldx #$00 ldx #0
4 .1002 ca dex loop dex
5 .1003 d0 fd bne $1002 bne loop
6 .1005 60 rts rts
;****** End of listing
--tab-size=<number>
By default the listing file is using a tab size of 8 to align the
disassembly. This can be changed to other more favorable values like 4.
Only spaces are used if 1 is selected. Please note that this has no effect
on the source code on the right hand side.
--verbose-list
Normally the assembler tries to minimize listing output by omitting
"unimportant" lines. But sometimes it's better to just list everything
including comments and empty lines.
; 64tass Turbo Assembler Macro V1.5x listing file
; 64tass --verbose-list -L list.txt a.asm
; Fri Dec 9 19:13:25 2005
;Offset ;Hex ;Monitor ;Source
;****** Processing input file: a.asm
* = $1000
.1000 a2 00 ldx #$00 ldx #0
.1002 ca dex loop dex
.1003 d0 fd bne $1002 bne loop
.1005 60 rts rts
;****** End of listing
Other options
-?, --help
Give this help list. Prints help about command line options.
--usage
Give a short usage message. Prints short help about command line options.
-V, --version
Print program version
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Messages
Faults and warnings encountered are sent to standard error for logging. To
redirect them into a file append `2>filename.log' after the command, or use the
`-E' command line option. The message format is the following:
<filename>:<line>:<character>: <severity>: <message>
* filename: The name and path of source file where the error happened.
* line: Line number of file, starts from 1.
* character: Character in line, starts from 1. Tabs are not expanded.
* severity: Note, warning, error or fatal.
* message: The fault message itself.
The faulty line may be displayed after the message with a caret pointing to the
error location.
a.asm:3:21: error: not defined 'label'
lda label
^
a.asm:3:21: note: searched in the global scope
Lines containing macros are expanded whenever possible, but due to internal
limitations referenced lines in relation to the actual fault will display
without them.
Messages ending with `[-Wxxx]' are user controllable. This means that using
`-Wno-xxx' on the command line will silence them and `-Werror=xxx' will turn
them it into a fault. See Diagnostic options for more details.
Warnings
approximate floating point
floating point comparisons are not exact and the numbers were close but
maybe not quite
case ignored, value already handled
this value was already used in an earlier case so here it's ignored
compile offset overflow
compile continues at the bottom ($0000) as end of compile area was reached
constant result, possibly changeable to 'lda'
a pre-calculated value could be loaded instead as the result seems to be
always the same
could be shorter by using 'xxx' instead
this shorter instruction gives the same result according to the optimizer
could be simpler by using 'xxx' instead
this instruction gives the same result but with less dependencies according
to the optimizer
deprecated directive, only for TASM compatible mode
.goto and .lbl should only be used in TASM compatible mode and there are
better ways to loop
deprecated equal operator, use '==' instead
single equal sign for comparisons is going away soon, update source
deprecated modulo operator, use '%' instead
double slash for modulo is going away soon, update source
deprecated not equal operator, use '!=' instead
non-standard not equal operators which will stop working in the future,
update source
directive ignored
an assembler directive was ignored for compatibility reasons
immediate addressing mode suggested
numeric constant was used as an address which was likely meant as an
immediate value
independent result, possibly changeable to 'lda'
the result does not seem to depend on the input so it could be just loaded
instead
instruction 'xxx' is an alias of 'xxx'
an alternative instruction name was used
label defined instead of variable multiplication for compatibility
move the '*=' construct to a separate line or define the variable first as
this construct is ambiguous
label not on left side
check if an instruction name was not mistyped and if the current CPU has
it, or remove white space before label
leading zeros ignored
leading zeros in front of decimals are redundant and don't denote an octal
number
long branch used
branch distance was too long so long branch was used (bxx *+5 jmp)
please use format("%d", ...) as '^' will change it's meaning
this operator will be changed to mean the bank byte later, please update
your sources
please use quotes now to allow expressions in future
the directive will allow expressions later and the parameter will be a
string
possible jmp ($xxff) bug
some 6502 variants read don't increment the high byte on page cross and
this may be unexpected
possibly redundant as ...
according to the optimizer this might not be needed
possibly redundant if last 'jsr' is changed to 'jmp'
tail call elimination possibility was detected
possibly redundant indexing with a constant value
the index register used seems to be constant and there's a way to eliminate
indexing by a constant offset
processor program counter overflow
pc address was set back to the start of actual 64 KiB program bank as end
of bank was reached
symbol case mismatch '?'
the symbol is matching case insensitively but it's not all letters are
exactly the same
the file's real name is not '?'
check if all characters match including their case as this is not the real
name of the file
this name uses reserved characters '?'
do not use \ : * ? " < > | in file names as some operating systems don't
like these
unused symbol '?'
this symbol has is not referred anywhere and therefore may be unused
use '/' as path separation '?'
backslash is not a path separator on all systems while forward slash will
work independent of the host operating system
use relative path for '?'
file's path is absolute and depends on the file system layout and the
source will not compile without the exact same environment
Errors
? expected
something is missing
address in different program bank
this instruction is only limited to access the current bank
address not in processor address space
value larger than current CPU address space
address out of section
moving the address around is fine as long as it does not end up before the
start of the section
addressing mode too complex
too much indexing or indirection for a valid address
at least one byte is needed
the expression didn't yield any bytes but it's needed here
branch crosses page by ? bytes
page crossing was on branch was detected
branch too far by ? bytes
branches have limited range and this went over by some bytes
can't calculate stable value
somehow it's impossible to calculate this expression
can't calculate this
could not get any value, is this a circular reference?
can't encode character '?' ($xx) in encoding '?'
can't translate character in this encoding as no definition was given
can't get absolute value of type '?'
not possible to calculate the absolute value of this type
can't get boolean value of type '?'
not possible to determine if this value is true or false
can't get integer value of type '?'
this value is not a number
can't get length of type '?'
this type has no length
can't get sign of type '?'
this type does not have a sign as it's not a number
can't get size of type '?'
this type has no size
conflict
at least one feature is provided, which shouldn't be there
division by zero
dividing with zero can't be done
double defined escape
escape sequence already defined in another .edef differently
double defined range
part of a character range was already defined by another .cdef and these
ranges can't overlap
duplicate definition
symbol defined more than once
empty encoding, add something or correct name
probably a typo in the name of encoding but if not then use .cdef/.edef to
define something
empty range not allowed
invalid range but there must be at least one element
empty string not allowed
at least one character is required
expected exactly/at least/at most ? arguments, got ?
wrong number of function arguments used
expression syntax
syntax error
extra characters on line
there's some garbage on the end of line
floating point overflow
infinity reached during a calculation
general syntax
can't do anything with this
index out of range
not enough elements in list
key error
key not in the dictionary
label required
a label is mandatory for this directive
last byte must not be gap
.shift or .shiftl needs a normal byte at the end
logarithm of non-positive number
only positive numbers have a logarithm
missing argument
not enough arguments supplied to function
more than a single character
no more than a single character is allowed
more than two characters
no more than two characters are allowed
most significant bit must be clear in byte
for .shift and .shiftl only 7 bit "bytes" are valid
negative number raised on fractional power
can't calculate this
no ? addressing mode for opcode
this addressing mode is not valid for this instruction
not a bank 0 address
value must be a bank zero address
not a data bank address
value must be a data bank address
not a direct page address
value must be a direct page address
not a key and value pair
dictionaries are built from key and value pairs separated by a colon
not a variable
only variables are changeable
not allowed here: ?
do not use this directive here
not defined '?'
can't find this label at this point
not hashable
the type can't be used as a key in a dictionary
not in range -1.0 to 1.0
the function is only valid in the -1.0 to 1.0 range
not iterable
value is not a list or other iterable object
offset out of range
code offset too much
operands could not be broadcast together with shapes ? and ?
list length must match or must have a single element only
page error at $xxxx
page crossing was detected
ptext too long by ? bytes
.ptext is limited to 255 bytes maximum
requirements not met
not all features are provided, at least one is missing
reserved symbol name '?'
do not use this symbol name
shadow definition
symbol is defined in an upper scope as well and is used ambiguously
some operation '?' of type '?' and type '?' not possible
can't do this calculation with these values
square root of negative number
can't calculate the square root of a negative number
too early to reference
processing still ongoing, can't access this yet
too large for a ? bit signed/unsigned integer
value out of range
unknown processor '?'
unknown cpu name
value needs to be non-negative
only positive numbers or zero is accepted here
wrong type <?>
wrong object type used
zero value not allowed
do not use zero for example with .null
Fatal errors
can't open file
cannot open file
can't write error file
cannot write the error file
can't write label file
cannot write the label file
can't write listing file
cannot write the list file
can't write make file
cannot write the make rule file
can't write object file
cannot write the result
error reading file
error while reading
file recursion
wrong nesting of .include
function recursion too deep
wrong use of nested functions
macro recursion too deep
wrong use of nested macros
option '?' doesn't allow an argument
command line option doesn't need any argument
option '?' is ambiguous
command line option abbreviation is too short
option '?' not recognized
no such command line option
option '?' requires an argument
command line option needs an argument
out of memory
won't happen ;)
scope '?' for label listing not found
the scope given on command line couldn't be found
too many passes
with a carefully crafted source file it's possible to create unresolvable
situations but try to avoid this
unknown option '?'
option not known
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Credits
Original 6502tass written for DOS by Marek Matula of Taboo.
It was ported to ANSI C by BigFoot/Breeze. This is when it's name changed to
64tass.
Soci/Singular reworked the code over the years to the point that practically
nothing was left from original at this point.
Improved TASS compatibility, PETSCII codes by Groepaz.
Additional code: my_getopt command-line argument parser by Benjamin Sittler,
avl tree code by Franck Bui-Huu, ternary tree code by Daniel Berlin, snprintf
Alain Magloire, Amiga OS4 support files by Janne Per?aho.
Pierre Zero helped to uncover a lot of faults by fuzzing. Also there were a lot
of discussions with oziphantom about the need of various features.
Main developer and maintainer: soci at c64.rulez.org
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Default translation and escape sequences
Raw 8-bit source
By default raw 8-bit encoding is used and nothing is translated or escaped.
This mode is for compiling sources which are already PETSCII.
The `none' encoding for raw 8-bit
Does no translation at all, no translation table, no escape sequences.
The `screen' encoding for raw 8-bit
The following translation table applies, no escape sequences.
Built-in PETSCII to PETSCII screen code translation table
Input Byte Input Byte
00-1F 80-9F 20-3F 20-3F
40-5F 00-1F 60-7F 40-5F
80-9F 80-9F A0-BF 60-7F
C0-FE 40-7E FF 5E
Unicode and ASCII source
Unicode encoding is used when the `-a' option is given on the command line.
The `none' encoding for Unicode
This is a Unicode to PETSCII mapping, including escape sequences for control
codes.
Built-in Unicode to PETSCII translation table
Glyph Unicode Byte Glyph Unicode Byte
-@ U+0020-U+0040 20-40 A-Z U+0041-U+005A C1-DA
[ U+005B 5B ] U+005D 5D
a-z U+0061-U+007A 41-5A ? U+00A3 5C
? U+03C0 FF ? U+2190 5F
? U+2191 5E ? U+2500 C0
? U+2502 DD ? U+250C B0
? U+2510 AE ? U+2514 AD
? U+2518 BD ? U+251C AB
? U+2524 B3 ? U+252C B2
? U+2534 B1 ? U+253C DB
? U+256D D5 ? U+256E C9
? U+256F CB ? U+2570 CA
? U+2571 CE ? U+2572 CD
? U+2573 D6 ? U+2581 A4
? U+2582 AF ? U+2583 B9
? U+2584 A2 ? U+258C A1
? U+258D B5 ? U+258E B4
? U+258F A5 ? U+2592 A6
? U+2594 A3 ? U+2595 A7
? U+2596 BB ? U+2597 AC
? U+2598 BE ? U+259A BF
? U+259D BC ? U+25CB D7
? U+25CF D1 ? U+25E4 A9
? U+25E5 DF ? U+2660 C1
? U+2663 D8 ? U+2665 D3
? U+2666 DA ? U+2713 BA
Built-in PETSCII escape sequences
Escape Byte Escape Byte Escape Byte
{bell} 07 {black} 90 {blk} 90
{blue} 1F {blu} 1F {brn} 95
{brown} 95 {cbm-*} DF {cbm-+} A6
{cbm--} DC {cbm-0} 30 {cbm-1} 81
{cbm-2} 95 {cbm-3} 96 {cbm-4} 97
{cbm-5} 98 {cbm-6} 99 {cbm-7} 9A
{cbm-8} 9B {cbm-9} 29 {cbm-@} A4
{cbm-^} DE {cbm-a} B0 {cbm-b} BF
{cbm-c} BC {cbm-d} AC {cbm-e} B1
{cbm-f} BB {cbm-g} A5 {cbm-h} B4
{cbm-i} A2 {cbm-j} B5 {cbm-k} A1
{cbm-l} B6 {cbm-m} A7 {cbm-n} AA
{cbm-o} B9 {cbm-pound} A8 {cbm-p} AF
{cbm-q} AB {cbm-r} B2 {cbm-s} AE
{cbm-t} A3 {cbm-up arrow} DE {cbm-u} B8
{cbm-v} BE {cbm-w} B3 {cbm-x} BD
{cbm-y} B7 {cbm-z} AD {clear} 93
{clr} 93 {control-0} 92 {control-1} 90
{control-2} 05 {control-3} 1C {control-4} 9F
{control-5} 9C {control-6} 1E {control-7} 1F
{control-8} 9E {control-9} 12 {control-:} 1B
{control-;} 1D {control-=} 1F {control-@} 00
{control-a} 01 {control-b} 02 {control-c} 03
{control-d} 04 {control-e} 05 {control-f} 06
{control-g} 07 {control-h} 08 {control-i} 09
{control-j} 0A {control-k} 0B {control-left arrow} 06
{control-l} 0C {control-m} 0D {control-n} 0E
{control-o} 0F {control-pound} 1C {control-p} 10
{control-q} 11 {control-r} 12 {control-s} 13
{control-t} 14 {control-up arrow} 1E {control-u} 15
{control-v} 16 {control-w} 17 {control-x} 18
{control-y} 19 {control-z} 1A {cr} 0D
{cyan} 9F {cyn} 9F {delete} 14
{del} 14 {dish} 08 {down} 11
{ensh} 09 {esc} 1B {f10} 82
{f11} 84 {f12} 8F {f1} 85
{f2} 89 {f3} 86 {f4} 8A
{f5} 87 {f6} 8B {f7} 88
{f8} 8C {f9} 80 {gray1} 97
{gray2} 98 {gray3} 9B {green} 1E
{grey1} 97 {grey2} 98 {grey3} 9B
{grn} 1E {gry1} 97 {gry2} 98
{gry3} 9B {help} 84 {home} 13
{insert} 94 {inst} 94 {lblu} 9A
{left arrow} 5F {left} 9D {lf} 0A
{lgrn} 99 {lower case} 0E {lred} 96
{lt blue} 9A {lt green} 99 {lt red} 96
{orange} 81 {orng} 81 {pi} FF
{pound} 5C {purple} 9C {pur} 9C
{red} 1C {return} 0D {reverse off} 92
{reverse on} 12 {rght} 1D {right} 1D
{run} 83 {rvof} 92 {rvon} 12
{rvs off} 92 {rvs on} 12 {shift return} 8D
{shift-*} C0 {shift-+} DB {shift-,} 3C
{shift--} DD {shift-.} 3E {shift-/} 3F
{shift-0} 30 {shift-1} 21 {shift-2} 22
{shift-3} 23 {shift-4} 24 {shift-5} 25
{shift-6} 26 {shift-7} 27 {shift-8} 28
{shift-9} 29 {shift-:} 5B {shift-;} 5D
{shift-@} BA {shift-^} DE {shift-a} C1
{shift-b} C2 {shift-c} C3 {shift-d} C4
{shift-e} C5 {shift-f} C6 {shift-g} C7
{shift-h} C8 {shift-i} C9 {shift-j} CA
{shift-k} CB {shift-l} CC {shift-m} CD
{shift-n} CE {shift-o} CF {shift-pound} A9
{shift-p} D0 {shift-q} D1 {shift-r} D2
{shift-space} A0 {shift-s} D3 {shift-t} D4
{shift-up arrow} DE {shift-u} D5 {shift-v} D6
{shift-w} D7 {shift-x} D8 {shift-y} D9
{shift-z} DA {space} 20 {sret} 8D
{stop} 03 {swlc} 0E {swuc} 8E
{tab} 09 {up arrow} 5E {up/lo lock off} 09
{up/lo lock on} 08 {upper case} 8E {up} 91
{white} 05 {wht} 05 {yellow} 9E
{yel} 9E
The `screen' encoding for Unicode
This is a Unicode to PETSCII screen code mapping, including escape sequences
for control code screen codes.
Built-in Unicode to PETSCII screen code translation table
Glyph Unicode Translated Glyph Unicode Translated
-? U+0020-U+003F 20-3F @ U+0040 00
A-Z U+0041-U+005A 41-5A [ U+005B 1B
] U+005D 1D a-z U+0061-U+007A 01-1A
? U+00A3 1C ? U+03C0 5E
? U+2190 1F ? U+2191 1E
? U+2500 40 ? U+2502 5D
? U+250C 70 ? U+2510 6E
? U+2514 6D ? U+2518 7D
? U+251C 6B ? U+2524 73
? U+252C 72 ? U+2534 71
? U+253C 5B ? U+256D 55
? U+256E 49 ? U+256F 4B
? U+2570 4A ? U+2571 4E
? U+2572 4D ? U+2573 56
? U+2581 64 ? U+2582 6F
? U+2583 79 ? U+2584 62
? U+258C 61 ? U+258D 75
? U+258E 74 ? U+258F 65
? U+2592 66 ? U+2594 63
? U+2595 67 ? U+2596 7B
? U+2597 6C ? U+2598 7E
? U+259A 7F ? U+259D 7C
? U+25CB 57 ? U+25CF 51
? U+25E4 69 ? U+25E5 5F
? U+2660 41 ? U+2663 58
? U+2665 53 ? U+2666 5A
? U+2713 7A
Built-in PETSCII screen code escape sequences
Escape Byte Escape Byte Escape Byte
{cbm-*} 5F {cbm-+} 66 {cbm--} 5C
{cbm-0} 30 {cbm-9} 29 {cbm-@} 64
{cbm-^} 5E {cbm-a} 70 {cbm-b} 7F
{cbm-c} 7C {cbm-d} 6C {cbm-e} 71
{cbm-f} 7B {cbm-g} 65 {cbm-h} 74
{cbm-i} 62 {cbm-j} 75 {cbm-k} 61
{cbm-l} 76 {cbm-m} 67 {cbm-n} 6A
{cbm-o} 79 {cbm-pound} 68 {cbm-p} 6F
{cbm-q} 6B {cbm-r} 72 {cbm-s} 6E
{cbm-t} 63 {cbm-up arrow} 5E {cbm-u} 78
{cbm-v} 7E {cbm-w} 73 {cbm-x} 7D
{cbm-y} 77 {cbm-z} 6D {left arrow} 1F
{pi} 5E {pound} 1C {shift-*} 40
{shift-+} 5B {shift-,} 3C {shift--} 5D
{shift-.} 3E {shift-/} 3F {shift-0} 30
{shift-1} 21 {shift-2} 22 {shift-3} 23
{shift-4} 24 {shift-5} 25 {shift-6} 26
{shift-7} 27 {shift-8} 28 {shift-9} 29
{shift-:} 1B {shift-;} 1D {shift-@} 7A
{shift-^} 5E {shift-a} 41 {shift-b} 42
{shift-c} 43 {shift-d} 44 {shift-e} 45
{shift-f} 46 {shift-g} 47 {shift-h} 48
{shift-i} 49 {shift-j} 4A {shift-k} 4B
{shift-l} 4C {shift-m} 4D {shift-n} 4E
{shift-o} 4F {shift-pound} 69 {shift-p} 50
{shift-q} 51 {shift-r} 52 {shift-space} 60
{shift-s} 53 {shift-t} 54 {shift-up arrow} 5E
{shift-u} 55 {shift-v} 56 {shift-w} 57
{shift-x} 58 {shift-y} 59 {shift-z} 5A
{space} 20 {up arrow} 1E
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Opcodes
Standard 6502 opcodes
The standard 6502 opcodes
ADC 61 65 69 6D 71 75 79 7D AND 21 25 29 2D 31 35 39 3D
ASL 06 0A 0E 16 1E BCC 90
BCS B0 BEQ F0
BIT 24 2C BMI 30
BNE D0 BPL 10
BRK 00 BVC 50
BVS 70 CLC 18
CLD D8 CLI 58
CLV B8 CMP C1 C5 C9 CD D1 D5 D9 DD
CPX E0 E4 EC CPY C0 C4 CC
DEC C6 CE D6 DE DEX CA
DEY 88 EOR 41 45 49 4D 51 55 59 5D
INC E6 EE F6 FE INX E8
INY C8 JMP 4C 6C
JSR 20 LDA A1 A5 A9 AD B1 B5 B9 BD
LDX A2 A6 AE B6 BE LDY A0 A4 AC B4 BC
LSR 46 4A 4E 56 5E NOP EA
ORA 01 05 09 0D 11 15 19 1D PHA 48
PHP 08 PLA 68
PLP 28 ROL 26 2A 2E 36 3E
ROR 66 6A 6E 76 7E RTI 40
RTS 60 SBC E1 E5 E9 ED F1 F5 F9 FD
SEC 38 SED F8
SEI 78 STA 81 85 8D 91 95 99 9D
STX 86 8E 96 STY 84 8C 94
TAX AA TAY A8
TSX BA TXA 8A
TXS 9A TYA 98
Aliases, pseudo instructions
ASL 0A BGE B0
BLT 90 GCC 4C 90
GCS 4C B0 GEQ 4C F0
GGE 4C B0 GLT 4C 90
GMI 30 4C GNE 4C D0
GPL 10 4C GVC 4C 50
GVS 4C 70 LSR 4A
ROL 2A ROR 6A
SHL 06 0A 0E 16 1E SHR 46 4A 4E 56 5E
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6502 illegal opcodes
This processor is a standard 6502 with the NMOS illegal opcodes.
Additional opcodes
ANC 0B ANE 8B
ARR 6B ASR 4B
DCP C3 C7 CF D3 D7 DB DF ISB E3 E7 EF F3 F7 FB FF
JAM 02 LAX A3 A7 AB AF B3 B7 BF
LDS BB NOP 04 0C 14 1C 80
RLA 23 27 2F 33 37 3B 3F RRA 63 67 6F 73 77 7B 7F
SAX 83 87 8F 97 SBX CB
SHA 93 9F SHS 9B
SHX 9E SHY 9C
SLO 03 07 0F 13 17 1B 1F SRE 43 47 4F 53 57 5B 5F
Additional aliases
AHX 93 9F ALR 4B
AXS CB DCM C3 C7 CF D3 D7 DB DF
INS E3 E7 EF F3 F7 FB FF ISC E3 E7 EF F3 F7 FB FF
LAE BB LAS BB
LXA AB TAS 9B
XAA 8B
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
65DTV02 opcodes
This processor is an enhanced version of standard 6502 with some illegal
opcodes.
Additionally to 6502 illegal opcodes
BRA 12 SAC 32
SIR 42
Additional pseudo instruction
GRA 12 4C
These illegal opcodes are not valid
ANC 0B JAM 02
LDS BB NOP 04 0C 14 1C 80
SBX CB SHA 93 9F
SHS 9B SHX 9E
SHY 9C
These aliases are not valid
AHX 93 9F AXS CB
LAE BB LAS BB
TAS 9B
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Standard 65C02 opcodes
This processor is an enhanced version of standard 6502.
Additional opcodes
ADC 72 AND 32
BIT 34 3C 89 BRA 80
CMP D2 DEC 3A
EOR 52 INC 1A
JMP 7C LDA B2
ORA 12 PHX DA
PHY 5A PLX FA
PLY 7A SBC F2
STA 92 STZ 64 74 9C 9E
TRB 14 1C TSB 04 0C
Additional aliases and pseudo instructions
CLR 64 74 9C 9E DEA 3A
GRA 4C 80 INA 1A
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
R65C02 opcodes
This processor is an enhanced version of standard 65C02.
Please note that the bit number is not part of the instruction name (like rmb7
$20). Instead it's the first element of coma separated parameters (e.g. rmb
7,$20).
Additional opcodes
BBR 0F 1F 2F 3F 4F 5F 6F 7F BBS 8F 9F AF BF CF DF EF FF
NOP 44 54 82 DC RMB 07 17 27 37 47 57 67 77
SMB 87 97 A7 B7 C7 D7 E7 F7
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
W65C02 opcodes
This processor is an enhanced version of R65C02.
Additional opcodes
STP DB WAI CB
Additional aliases
HLT DB
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
W65816 opcodes
This processor is an enhanced version of 65C02.
Additional opcodes
ADC 63 67 6F 73 77 7F AND 23 27 2F 33 37 3F
BRL 82 CMP C3 C7 CF D3 D7 DF
COP 02 EOR 43 47 4F 53 57 5F
JMP 5C DC JSL 22
JSR FC LDA A3 A7 AF B3 B7 BF
MVN 54 MVP 44
ORA 03 07 0F 13 17 1F PEA F4
PEI D4 PER 62
PHB 8B PHD 0B
PHK 4B PLB AB
PLD 2B REP C2
RTL 6B SBC E3 E7 EF F3 F7 FF
SEP E2 STA 83 87 8F 93 97 9F
STP DB TCD 5B
TCS 1B TDC 7B
TSC 3B TXY 9B
TYX BB WAI CB
XBA EB XCE FB
Additional aliases
CSP 02 CLP C2
HLT DB JML 5C DC
SWA EB TAD 5B
TAS 1B TDA 7B
TSA 3B
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
65EL02 opcodes
This processor is an enhanced version of standard 65C02.
Additional opcodes
ADC 63 67 73 77 AND 23 27 33 37
CMP C3 C7 D3 D7 DIV 4F 5F 6F 7F
ENT 22 EOR 43 47 53 57
JSR FC LDA A3 A7 B3 B7
MMU EF MUL 0F 1F 2F 3F
NXA 42 NXT 02
ORA 03 07 13 17 PEA F4
PEI D4 PER 62
PHD DF PLD CF
REA 44 REI 54
REP C2 RER 82
RHA 4B RHI 0B
RHX 1B RHY 5B
RLA 6B RLI 2B
RLX 3B RLY 7B
SBC E3 E7 F3 F7 SEA 9F
SEP E2 STA 83 87 93 97
STP DB SWA EB
TAD BF TDA AF
TIX DC TRX AB
TXI 5C TXR 8B
TXY 9B TYX BB
WAI CB XBA EB
XCE FB ZEA 8F
Additional aliases
CLP C2 HLT DB
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
65CE02 opcodes
This processor is an enhanced version of R65C02.
Additional opcodes
ASR 43 44 54 ASW CB
BCC 93 BCS B3
BEQ F3 BMI 33
BNE D3 BPL 13
BRA 83 BSR 63
BVC 53 BVS 73
CLE 02 CPZ C2 D4 DC
DEW C3 DEZ 3B
INW E3 INZ 1B
JSR 22 23 LDA E2
LDZ A3 AB BB NEG 42
PHW F4 FC PHZ DB
PLZ FB ROW EB
RTS 62 SEE 03
STA 82 STX 9B
STY 8B TAB 5B
TAZ 4B TBA 7B
TSY 0B TYS 2B
TZA 6B
Additional aliases
ASR 43 BGE B3
BLT 93 NEG 42
RTN 62
This alias is not valid
CLR 64 74 9C 9E
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CSG 4510 opcodes
This processor is an enhanced version of 65CE02.
Additional opcodes
MAP 5C
Additional aliases
EOM EA
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Appendix
Assembler directives
.addr .al .align .as .assert .autsiz .bend .binary .binclude .block .break
.byte .case .cdef .cerror .char .check .comment .continue .cpu .cwarn .databank
.default .dint .dpage .dsection .dstruct .dunion .dword .edef .else .elsif .enc
.end .endc .endf .endif .endm .endp .ends .endswitch .endu .endweak .eor .error
.fi .fill .for .function .goto .here .hidemac .if .ifeq .ifmi .ifne .ifpl
.include .lbl .lint .logical .long .macro .mansiz .next .null .offs .option
.page .pend .proc .proff .pron .ptext .rept .rta .section .seed .segment .send
.shift .shiftl .showmac .sint .struct .switch .text .union .var .warn .weak
.word .xl .xs
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Built-in functions
abs acos all any asin atan atan2 cbrt ceil cos cosh deg exp floor format frac
hypot len log log10 pow rad random range repr round sign sin sinh size sort
sqrt tan tanh trunc
Built-in types
address bits bool bytes code dict float gap int list str tuple type