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But what does that mean for you? Imagine having a tool that helps you stay ahead of disease outbreaks and tailors predictions and health insights specifically to your location. PAWS does just that — giving you a dynamic, easy-to-use forecast that allows you to protect animals with precision and confidence.

Predictive Power Like Never Before

The first phase of our PAWS launch is our NFS (Nematodirus Forecasting System). The Nematodirus forecast within PAWS is more than just a tool – it’s a game-changer. With an interactive map that shows real-time risk levels across different regions, PAWS helps you understand exactly when you need to be on the lookout for Nematodirus, ensuring that you don’t miss the critical windows for intervention. PAWS gives you the intelligence to stay one step ahead.

What makes this system so powerful?

• Weather Integration: By leveraging real-time weather data from over 70 weather stations across Ireland, PAWS offers four times more data-rich predictions than any existing models. This means your forecast isn’t based on guesswork or generalised data but on highly localised, accurate weather patterns that impact larvae hatch rates.
• Live Data: The PAWS system is live and updates daily to ensure you’re working with the most relevant data. A dynamic, real-time system ensures that you can track changes in risk levels and react quickly as conditions evolve.
• Predicting Hatch Dates: Our advanced models provide current risk levels and predict when the larvae are expected to hatch in your area. This is an unprecedented amount of information. This lets you know when to ramp up testing and monitoring so you can act before any outbreaks occur.

Why Nematodirus is a Big Deal for Animal Health

Nematodirus is a major concern, especially in spring and early summer. This parasitic infection, caused by a worm called Nematodirus battus, is notorious for its rapid spread and devastating impact on young lambs. The larvae hatch in the environment, and if grazing animals ingest them, they can cause severe digestive issues, resulting in reduced growth rates, poor condition, and, in some cases, even death.

The tricky part? The timing of larvae hatch can vary dramatically depending on weather conditions. When the temperature rises and is followed by rainfall or humidity, the worms can hatch in large numbers, creating a sudden surge in disease risk. For a farm health professional, staying on top of these fluctuations can be a challenge, especially when juggling various other health concerns.

Here’s where PAWS comes in. Understanding when Nematodirus larvae are likely to hatch in your specific area is critical to managing the risk. PAWS’ predictive model considers hundreds of daily data points to forecast disease risks and pinpoint expected hatch dates – so you can act fast, reducing the likelihood of a devastating outbreak on a farm.

PAWS – Your Daily Companion for Animal Health

PAWS is designed to be your go-to tool every day – just like checking the weather forecast. The platform’s intuitive interface makes it simple to access critical data, even if you’re on the move. With easy-to-use timelines, you can quickly see past predictions to identify trends and plan ahead with predictions for the upcoming weeks, all from your phone.

It’s more than just a forecast; it’s your healthcare companion for daily decision-making. Whether planning treatments or monitoring grazing habits, PAWS provides a personalised experience based on your specific location and business needs.

What’s Next for PAWS?

This launch is just the start. Over the next few months, we will add additional regions to expand the coverage of the Nematodirus forecast. PAWS will be available to our customers in the UK, the Netherlands, Belgium and France very soon, but that’s not all. As PAWS grows, we will be rolling out predictive models for other diseases, giving you an all-encompassing tool to help you monitor, predict, and manage animal health risks year-round.

Our ultimate goal is for you to check PAWS like you check the weather app, making it an essential tool that empowers animal health professionals around the globe. It’s not just about providing data – it’s about empowering you to make smarter, faster, and more accurate decisions that protect animal health and, ultimately, human health.

Ready to Take Control of Animal Health?

To start using PAWS and gain access to the Nematodirus forecast, contact our team by email at [email protected] or call us on +35315756802.

Protecting animals from Nematodirus and other diseases has never been easier. With PAWS, you’re not just reacting to disease outbreaks but staying ahead of them.

Get started today and experience the future of animal health management — predict, prevent, and protect with PAWS.

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Parasites are organisms that live in or on another host organism and rely on it for nourishment and survival, there are several types of parasites including:

Protozoa 

Single celled organism that can live in intestines bloodstream and other parts of the body, example include Coccidia (which causes coccidiosis) and Giadria (which cause giardiasis).

Helminths

Multicellular organisms are often referred to as worms. These can include Roundworm, Flatworms and Flukes that can infect organs such as the intestines, lungs, and liver. 

Ectoparasites

These parasites live on the skins or hair of the host such as fleas, mites and ticks.

Parasitic infection in animals can present in different symptoms from asymptomatic, fatigue, weight loss, changes in appetite, and stomach issues including bloating pain and diarrhea. Parasites can be transmitted in various ways such as :

• Through other animals, by coming into contact with infected animals or their waste and is common in populated areas such as kennels or farms.
• From the environment, fleas ticks and some worms can be picked up by grassy areas like pastures.
• Through contaminated food and water, some internal parasites like giardia and roundworm can be ingested by the animal when eating and drinking.

The Micron Kit is the only tool you need to rapidly run GI worm & fluke FEC tests in cattle, sheep and horses. Testing your animals regularly for Worms and Fluke infections using the Micron Kit allows for the awareness, prevention of illness and management of your animals health. Test animals for worms like never before with rapid, automated results straight to your phone and advanced analytics of parasite infections and trends. With Micron Kit, test animals then treat to avoid and monitor medication resistance and help save your clients time and money. 

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1. Haemonchus contortus (Barber’s Pole Worm) 

Host: Sheep, goats, and cattle
Transmission: Ingestion of larvae from contaminated pasture

Haemonchus contortus, commonly known as the Barber’s Pole Worm, is one of the most notorious gastrointestinal parasites in livestock. It predominantly affects small ruminants such as sheep and goats but can also infect cattle. Haemonchus contortus are blood-sucking parasites that lay eggs in the abomasum of their host. The worm is large (up to 3 cm long) and identifiable by their distinct red and white spiral appearance, as a result of its blood filled intestinal tract, which resembles a barber’s pole.  

Microscopic features:

Strongyle

• The Haemonchus egg is oval and transparent, measuring about 70-85 microns in length.
• The larvae in the early stages (L1, L2) are also transparent, but as they develop into L3, they become more noticeable with their small, round bodies and characteristic movement. 

2. Fasciola hepatica (Liver Fluke)

Primary Host: Cattle, sheep, goats, and deer
Secondary Host: Mud snail
Transmission: Ingestion of cysts from contaminated water or vegetation

Liver flukes, particularly Fasciola hepatica, are widespread in Europe, especially in wetter regions. These parasitic flatworms can cause significant liver damage in their hosts, leading to symptoms such as weight loss, anemia, and jaundice. Under the microscope, Fasciola hepatica appears as a large, flat, leaf-shaped worm, typically measuring between 2 to 3 cm in length. The eggs of liver flukes are operculated (they have a lid) and oval, with lengths ranging from 130 to 150 microns.

Microscopic features:

• The eggs of Fasciola are easily distinguished due to their large size and operculated ends.
• Mature adult flukes can be seen under the microscope in faecal samples as flattened, reddish-brown structures, often with visible internal organs. 

3. Trichostrongylus spp. (Hair Worms)

Host: Cattle, sheep, goats, and horses
Transmission: Ingestion of larvae from contaminated pasture

Trichostrongylus species are another common group of gastrointestinal worms that affect a wide variety of herbivores. These worms are usually found in the small intestine and cause symptoms such as lack of appetite, weight loss, malabsorption of proteins, and sometimes severe diarrhea. The adult worms are thin and threadlike, measuring about 1 cm in length. The eggs are relatively small and can be difficult to differentiate from other similar-sized nematodes.

Microscopic features:

Strongyle

• The eggs of Trichostrongylus species are smooth, oval, and typically measure around 70-90 microns.
• Larvae (L3 stage) are more easily identifiable due to their long, threadlike bodies and fast whip-like movement in wet mount preparations.

4. Strongylus vulgaris (Equine Strongyle)

Host: Horses
Transmission: Ingestion of larvae from contaminated pasture

Equine strongyles, particularly Strongylus vulgaris, are one of the most harmful internal parasites in horses. They are bloodsucking parasites and can cause significant damage to the intestines and lead to colic, anemia, and weight loss. The adult worms are red in colour and relatively large, measuring around 2 to 3 cm, the eggs and larvae are typically what is identifiable in faecal samples.

Microscopic features:

Strongyle

• Strongylus vulgaris eggs are slightly oval with a smooth thin shell, measuring around 80-100 microns in length
• The larvae at the L3 stage are more mobile and can be identified by their long, cylindrical bodies with a characteristic pointed tail.

5. Ostertagia ostertagi (Brown Stomach Worm)

Host: Cattle
Transmission: Ingestion of larvae from contaminated pasture

The Ostertagia ostertagi is one of the most common gastrointestinal parasites in cattle in Europe, particularly in temperate regions.  It causes a disease known as “bovine ostertagiasis,” which can lead to severe digestive disturbances, such as loss in appetite, diarrhea, poor growth and in chronic cases, bottle jaw. The adult worm, found in the abomasum (the “true stomach” of cattle), is small, measuring about 1cm long, that borrows into the gastric glands.

Microscopic features:

Strongyle 

• Eggs of Ostertagia are typically oval and thin-shelled, measuring about 80-100 microns.
• The larvae at the L3 stage are slightly larger and can be observed in faeces.

6. Moniezia spp. (Ruminant Tapeworm) 

Primary Host: Sheep, goats and cattle
Secondary Host: Orbatid mite
Transmission: Ingestion of infectious mites from contaminated pasture

Moneizia spp. is the tapeworm found in small intestines of ruminants. This parasitic infection can display as asymptomatic. However, young ruminants or individuals with heavy infection can present clinical symptoms, such as diarrhea, poor growth or anemia. Adult worms are large and can measure different lengths, species dependant, ranging from 50cm to 5m. 

Microscopic features:

• The Moneizia eggs are quadrangular in shape , measuring about 60 to 75 micrometers in diameter.
• The larvae in the early stages (L2) develop in the intermediate host, which once ingested  penetrate the intestinal wall of the infected animal.
   

7. Eimeria spp. (Coccidia) 

Host: Sheep, goats and cattle
Transmission: Ingestion of oocysts from contaminated pasture

Eimeria spp. are protozoa commonly known as enteric coccidia that are found in the digestive tracts of infected animals. The Oocysts develop into sporulated oocysts in the environment and are ingested by grazing ruminants, resulting in penetration of the intestinal walls of  infected animals. Clinical disease predominantly manifests in young animals. Coccidia are prolific and during their lifecycle of sporulation can produce millions of infectious sporulated oocytes. To avoid recurring disease due to the high oocyst counts graving management and reduced stress is required when managing coccidia.

Microscopic features:

• Oocysts have a thick resistant shell and can survive harsh conditions in the environment.
• Oocysts are ellipsoid in shame and range in length from 10 to 30 microns.

8.Trichuris spp. (Whipworm) 

Host: Sheep, goats and cattle
Transmission: Ingestion of eggs from contaminated pasture and water

Trichuris spp.commonly referred to as Whipwom, is a genus of roundworm that infects the intestines of the host. Infections can lead to inflammation of the digestive tract, intestinal bleeding and reduced productivity in the animal.  Adult worms can measure 30 to 50mm in length.

Microscopic features:

• Trichuris spp eggs are barrel shaped with a thick shell. These eggs have polar plug caps on each end measuring about 50 to 75 microns in length. 
• The larvae stage hatch within the intestines of the animal and by burrowing into the caecum and colon.

9. Parascaris equorum

Host : Equine

Transmission: Ingestion of larvae from contaminate water or vegetation 

Parascaris equorum is an ascarid roundworm found in equines. This parasitic infection can display as asymptomatic in light infections. However, young ruminants or individuals with heavy infection can present clinical symptoms, such as depressed growth development in foals,  diarrhea and discomfort. The infective stage for horses is the egg containing a second-stage larva.  Adult worms can measure up to 50 cm in length

Microscopic features:

• Parascaris equorum eggs are brownish coloured measuring 90 to 100 µm in diameter.

• The eggs are nearly round in shape and have a thick rough outer shell. 

10. Ascaris suum (Large Intestinal Worm)

Host: Pigs
Transmission: Ingestion of eggs from contaminated feed or water

Ascaris suum, or the large intestinal worm, is particularly common in pigs in Europe. Infected pigs often show signs of respiratory distress, poor growth, and digestive issues. The adult worms are amongst the largest nematodes, measuring up to 40 cm in length, and can be seen without a microscope. However, the eggs, which are oval and thick-shelled, are small and require a microscope to be properly examined.

Microscopic features:

• Ascaris eggs are distinctive due to their thick, rough outer shell and are about 50-75 microns in diameter.
• The eggs appear golden-brown and have a characteristic bumpy texture when viewed under a microscope

11. Nematodirus spp.

Host: Sheep, goats and cattle
Transmission: Ingestion of larvae from contaminated pasture

Nematoridus spp is a thread-necked roundworm that causes disease in the small intestine of ruminant animals. Nematodirus spp infections can result in poor nutrient transfer resulting in clinical signs of diarrhoea, dehydration and sudden weight loss. Adult worms can vary in length from 11 to 25 millimeters. 

Microscopic features:

• Nematoridus spp, are large size eggs measuring 100 to 150 microns in length, inner material is distinctive with the large number of cells within the egg.
• The larvae in the later stages (L3) develop in the environment, which once ingested  penetrate the intestinal wall of the infected animal. 

12. Anoplocephala spp. (Equine Tapeworm)

Primary Host: Horses
Secondary Host: Orbatid Mites
Transmission: Ingestion of infected mites from contaminated pasture

Anoplocephala spp. is the tapeworm found in the small intestines of equine animals. This parasitic infection can display as asymptomatic. However, young ruminants or individuals with heavy infection can present clinical symptoms, such as diarrhea, anemia or colic . Adult worms are large and can measure different lengths, species dependant, ranging from 8 to 25 centimeters. 

Microscopic features:

• Anoplocephala spp. Eggs can present as round or D-shaped with thick outer shell membranes measuring 65 to 80 microns in diameter.

• Anoplocephala spp. Larvae are passed through an intermediate host into the equine where it burrows into the small intestines of the animal.

13. Strongyloides spp. (Ruminant Threadworm)

Host: Cattle, sheep and goats
Transmission: Ingestion of is from contaminated pasture or direct skin penetration

Strongyloides spp.is a thread-like worm that is found in the intestinal tract of ruminants. Infection due to Strongyloides spp. result in symptoms such as diarrhea, weight loss, dermatitis and for young and immunocompromised animals these infections may be fatal. Adult female worms can be up to 3mm in length.  

Microscopic features:

• Strongyloides spp. eggs are small oval shaped measuring from 50 to 80 µm in length.

• The eggs are identifiable due to their inner structure where the developing larvae can be visible.

Conclusion

Microscopy is a vital tool in the diagnosis and control of large animal parasites in Europe. By carefully examining faecal samples, veterinarians can identify the eggs, larvae, and sometimes even adult parasites that are causing issues in livestock and other large animals. Early detection and effective treatment of parasitic infections are key to maintaining healthy, productive animals. Understanding the microscopic features of these parasites allows for more precise identification, better treatment strategies, and ultimately a reduction in the impact of parasitic diseases on farming operations.

For farmers and veterinarians alike, keeping an eye on these microscopic invaders is essential for managing the health of large animals and safeguarding agricultural productivity.

References:

1. Gordon, H. M., & Whitlock, H. V. (1939). A new technique for counting nematode eggs in sheep faeces. Journal of Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, 12(1), 50–52.
2. Bowman, D. D. (2014). Georgis’ Parasitology for Veterinarians. Elsevier Health Sciences. This textbook covers identification and management of gastrointestinal parasites in large animals.
3. Hansen, J., & Perry, B. (1994). The Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Control of Helminth Parasites of Ruminants. International Livestock Centre for Africa.
4. Rehbein, S., & Vervent, E. (2017). Parasites of Large Ruminants: The Role of the Veterinarian in Identifying and Managing Parasitic Diseases in European Livestock. Veterinary Parasitology, 245, 55-69.
5. Levine, N. D. (1980). Nematode Parasites of Domestic Animals. Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing Ltd. This reference discusses the morphologic and lifecycle aspects of various nematodes including Haemonchus and Ostertagia.
6. Relf, V. E., & Norris, J. M. (2011). The Importance of Regular Faecal Egg Counts in Livestock Health Management. British Veterinary Journal, 167(6), 250-255.
7. MSD Veterinary Manual. Common gastrointestinal parasites of cattle – digestive system MSD Veterinary Manual. Available at: https://www.msdvetmanual.com/digestive-system/gastrointestinal-parasites-of-ruminants/common-gastrointestinal-parasites-of-cattle. 
8. Chemvet Australia (2024). Barber’s pole worm image (Figure 2). https://www.chemvet.com.au/barbers-pole-worm-haemonchus-contortus/https://www.chemvet.com.au/app/uploads/2024/10/B-Pole-Article-Thumbnail-300×300.png
9. Bowman, D. D. (2014). Georgis’ Parasitology for Veterinarians (10th ed.). Elsevier.
   1. This textbook offers comprehensive coverage of parasitic infections in animals, including strongyloidosis and trichuriasis in ruminants. It discusses both the biology and impact of these parasites in livestock.
10. Urquhart, G. M., Armour, J., Duncan, J. L., Dunn, A. M., & Jennings, F. W. (2013). Veterinary Parasitology (2nd ed.). Blackwell Publishing.
    1. A foundational text for veterinary students and professionals, this book covers the parasitic species that affect livestock, including the identification and control of Strongyloides and Trichuris.
11. Scott, M. E., & McDougald, L. R. (2012). Veterinary Helminthology (2nd ed.). Blackwell Publishing.
    1. This reference provides in-depth information on nematode infections in livestock, with a special focus on gastrointestinal nematodes such as Strongyloides and Trichuris.
12. Klein, M. L., & David, L. E. (2020). Diagnosis and Control of Helminth Parasites of Ruminants. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice, 36(1), 99-112.
    1. This article provides a review of diagnostic techniques and control measures for helminth parasites in ruminants, including Strongyloides and Trichuris.
13. Vercruysse, J., & Charlier, J. (2014). Control of Parasitic Helminths in Livestock. Parasitology, 141(S1), 124-133.
    1. A research article that covers the control and management of helminths, including Strongyloides and Trichuris, in large animals.
14. Slocombe, J. O. D., & Power, K. F. (2016). Parasitic Diseases of Ruminants: A Field Guide for Practitioners. Elsevier.
    1. Provides practical guidance on the identification and treatment of common parasitic diseases in ruminants, with detailed sections on gastrointestinal nematodes like Trichuris and Strongyloides.
15. Pritchard, G. C., & Holland, M. T. (2022). Gastrointestinal Nematodes in Ruminants: Diagnosis, Treatment, and Control. Veterinary Parasitology, 295, 12-23.
    1. An up-to-date review on the diagnostics and treatment protocols for gastrointestinal nematodes in ruminants, with particular focus on Strongyloides and Trichuris.
16. Sykes, A. R. (2016). Helminth Parasites of Sheep and Cattle: A Review of Current Knowledge and Control Options. In: Helminth Infections in Ruminants: Control and Treatment. Springer.
    1. This chapter reviews key parasitic species and modern control strategies, with insights into Strongyloides and Trichuris infections in ruminants.
17. Fossum, T. W. (2007). Small Animal Surgery (3rd ed.). Mosby.
    1. Although focused on small animals, this book provides useful insights into diagnosing and treating parasitic infections in large animals as well, including those caused by nematodes like Trichuris and Strongyloides.
18. World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). (2020). Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals.
19. A resource for veterinary professionals, which includes diagnostic methods for a wide range of parasites, including Strongyloides and Trichuris. 
20. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA): Provides data and reports on animal health, including parasitic infestations in livestock.

The Merck Veterinary Manual (13th edition): Available online, this is a great resource for both common and rare parasitic infections in large animals.

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In 2024, Micron Agritech witnessed a dramatic surge in parasite faecal testing of the equine industry, with a 340% increase in the number of tests conducted in Ireland and the UK compared with the previous year. As a result, a clearer picture of the extent of parasitic infections in horses within these regions has emerged. The most common parasite type detected in 2024 was Strongyle, with a staggering 85.05% of infected horses showing egg presence for this parasite. Other key parasite types included Strongyloides (11.18%), Parascaris (2.39%), and Anoplocephala (3.36%).

Amongst the tests completed, 68% of samples received an infection diagnosis, while the remaining 32% of horses were determined as clear from parasites. These healthy individuals could avoid unnecessary treatment to ensure the focus on the ongoing challenge of drug resistance and equine parasite management. This white paper analyses the findings of 2024 testing, discusses the potential drivers of the high infection rates, and offers actionable recommendations for the equine industry to improve parasite management and control.

Introduction

Parasites have long been a significant concern for the equine industry, with the potential to cause a wide range of health issues, from mild discomfort to severe conditions including colic, weight loss, and mortality. Previously, horse owners and veterinarians had relied on routine deworming to combat parasitic infections. However, with growing concerns about drug resistance, there has been a greater emphasis on diagnostic testing to more precisely manage parasite control.

In 2024, Micron Agritech experienced a sharp rise in the number of parasite tests performed in Ireland and the UK, revealing important data about the current state of parasitic infections. This white paper delves into the key findings of 2024 parasite testing, explores the implications for horse health, and proposes strategies for better parasite management moving forward.

Key Findings

Increased Testing in 2024

• Surge in Testing: Equine parasite testing using the Micron Kit increased by 340% in 2024. This significant rise indicates a shift toward more proactive and data-driven approaches to managing parasitic infections.
• Peak Testing Month: October saw the highest volume of equine tests performed, coinciding with the latter of the grazing season. This showcases the importance of testing before movement of animals to minimise contamination of the environment. 

Prevalence of Parasite Infections

Strongyle parasites, which are among the most common and harmful internal parasites in horses, were present in a staggering 85.05% of infected samples. This high prevalence is indicative of widespread parasite burdens across the population.

Strongyloides, a nematode commonly affecting foals and young horses, was detected in 11.18% of infected tests. This parasite can cause severe gastrointestinal issues in foals and is a major concern for early-life infections.

The roundworm Parascaris remains prevalent in young horses, accounting for 2.39% of infected samples in the tested population. Although less frequent, Parascaris still presents a significant health risk, causing weight loss and colic in foals and weanlings.

Anoplocephala, the tapeworm that infects the small intestine of horses, was detected in 3.36% of infected horses. Tapeworms can be difficult to detect and often go unnoticed until they cause serious complications like colic or intestinal obstruction.

Infection Rates

Of the horses tested, 68.29% tested positive for at least one parasite. This high infection rate emphasizes the ongoing challenge of managing parasitic infections in horses, particularly in areas with high parasite burdens. 

31.71% were determined as clear of parasitic infections. Healthy animals can be continually monitored for without blindly treating if a low or tolerable worm burden is present without clinical complications. This helps to maintain non-resistant worm populations in untreated horses and better preserves the efficacy of available drugs.

Parasitological Analysis

1. Dominance of Strongyle Infections

The overwhelming prevalence of Strongyle infections (85.05%) among the infected samples suggests that Strongyles remain the most significant and widespread threat to equine health. These parasites, which include both large and small strongyles, can cause colic, anemia, and damage to the intestinal walls, leading to long-term health complications in the host if left undiagnosed.

The persistence of Strongyle infections, despite increased deworming efforts, is likely due to a combination of factors. Overuse or improper use of dewormers has led to the development of resistance, particularly in Strongyle populations. This means that routine deworming may no longer be as effective as it traditionally was. In regards to the environment, Strongyles are passed in the faeces and can remain viable for long periods, especially in moist, warm conditions. In areas with poor pasture management or overcrowded conditions, environmental  contamination increases the risk of reinfection.

2. High Prevalence of Strongyloides and Parascaris in Young Horses

The presence of Strongyloides (11.18%) and Parascaris (2.39%) in the tested infected population highlights the particular risks posed to young horses. Foals are especially susceptible to Strongyloides, which can lead to severe diarrhea and dehydration [1]. Similarly, Parascaris can stunt growth and lead to respiratory issues in foals and yearlings [1].

Given that Parascaris has developed resistance to many common dewormers, there is a critical need for more targeted deworming strategies and better management of young horses during their most vulnerable stages.

3. Tapeworms: A Growing Concern

The detection of Anoplocephala (3.36%) in the tested infected population is noteworthy, as tapeworm infections often go undiagnosed until they cause acute issues like colic. The diagnosis of a tapeworm infection in equine animals can occasionally be identified using faecal egg count testing, but caution is required as eggs are shed intermittently. Therefore, alternative diagnostic methods may be used to prevent untreated tapeworm causing more severe complications later on.

Implications for the Equine Industry

1. Testing as a Key Tool for Parasite Management

The dramatic increase in testing in 2024 is a positive trend for the industry, as it indicates that horse owners and veterinarians are becoming more proactive in identifying and managing parasitic infections. Regular testing allows for more targeted treatment plans and can help prevent the overuse of dewormers, which contributes to resistance.

Although existing resistance cannot be reversed, it can be prevented from becoming a more common occurrence by enacting good pasture management and husbandry practices, as well as an organised anthelmintic control plan. An effective control plan could focus on strategic and selective treatment regimes based on faecal egg count results [2]. 

Faecal egg count results can be used to indicate treatment efficacy by undertaking a FEC prior to and post administration of an anthelmintic. This FEC reduction test can calculate the percentage of surviving parasite populations and the time interval before the reappearance of eggs, both of which are factors of resistance.

2. The Need for Integrated Parasite Management

The rise in parasite resistance and the complexity of parasite control necessitate a shift toward Integrated Parasite Management (IPM) strategies. IPM focuses on combining diagnostic testing, strategic deworming, environmental management, and pasture rotation to reduce the risk of reinfection [3].

Key components of IPM for equine parasite control include:

• Targeted Deworming: Deworming should be based on test results rather than routine treatments, allowing for more effective control of specific parasites.
• Environmental Management: Pasture management strategies, including rotating pastures, reducing faecal build-up, and controlling intermediate hosts, are essential in reducing parasite burdens in the environment.
• Monitoring and Follow-Up: Regular follow-up testing is necessary to ensure that deworming efforts are effective and that parasites have not developed resistance to treatment. Micron Agritech will soon be adding a drug active list to the platform to promote appropriate use and follow-up testing.

3. Sustainable Deworming Practices

The increased prevalence of parasite resistance highlights the need for more sustainable deworming practices. Eradication of all parasites is not an achievable feat and will only assist in accelerating resistance [4]. Horses and parasites can co-exist with the key aim of maintaining the health of the animal and limiting clinical illness. Over-reliance on dewormers can accelerate resistance, making treatments less effective over time. Strategies such as targeted deworming based on fecal egg counts and rotating deworming classes will help slow resistance development.

Recommendations for the Equine Industry

1. Increase Investment in Diagnostic Testing: Encourage the widespread use of diagnostic testing for equine parasites, especially among high-risk populations like young horses and horses in areas with known parasite burdens.
2. Adopt Integrated Parasite Management (IPM): Implement a comprehensive approach that combines deworming, pasture management, and environmental control to reduce the spread of parasitic infections.
3. Targeted Deworming: Focus deworming treatments on the specific needs of individual horses, guided by diagnostic testing, clinical signs, and farm history, to avoid unnecessary treatments and reduce resistance.
4. Educate the Equine Community: Expand educational efforts to help horse owners and veterinarians understand the importance of testing, targeted deworming, and resistance management.
5. Monitor and Adjust Strategies: Regularly assess the effectiveness of parasite management programs and adjust strategies based on the latest data and trends in parasite resistance.

Conclusion

The surge in parasite testing in 2024 has provided invaluable insights into the ongoing challenges faced by the equine industry in managing parasitic infections. The noteworthy infection rates of Strongyle, Strongyloides, Parascaris, and Anoplocephala, highlight the need for more effective, sustainable, and targeted parasite management strategies. By adopting Integrated Parasite Management (IPM) practices and focusing on testing, education, and strategic deworming, the equine industry can better control parasite burdens and improve the health and well-being of horses. Routine diagnostic testing is a valuable and essential tool that can help owners to keep track of the effectiveness of their husbandry decisions, help vets, together with clinical symptoms, to devise a treatment plan and evaluate the efficacy of administered wormers.

At Micron Agritech, we are continuously developing our testing platform and will soon launch the monitoring of horse age and breed alongside faecal egg count results. This will provide results with greater context and enable associations between parasitic infection and host factors to be reported. Additionally, we are actively encouraging users to gain more insights through data analysis. To assist, we are excited to launch our new analytics page coming soon which will allow users to view and manipulate data to discover their own trends.

References

[1] Elsheikha, H. (2016) ‘Equine internal and external parasites: identification, treatment and improving compliance.’ Vet Times.

[2] Teagasc (2024) Autumn Equine Internal Parasite Control. Available at: https://www.teagasc.ie/rural-economy/rural-development/equine/equine-health/autumn-equine-internal-parasite-control/ 

[3] Maqbool, I., Wani, Z.A., Shahardar, R.A., Allaie, I.M. and Shah, M.M. (2017) ‘Integrated parasite management with special reference to gastro-intestinal nematodes’, Journal of Parasitic Diseases, 41(1), pp.1-8.

[4] DVM360 (2024) Internal parasite control guidelines for horses are updated. Available at: https://www.dvm360.com/view/internal-parasite-control-guidelines-for-horses-are-updated

The post Tackling Equine Parasite Infections: Insights from 2024 Testing Trends appeared first on Micron Agritech.

Morphology 

Adult equine tapeworm, also referred to as Anoplocephala, are parasitic flatworms that consist of a head, neck and body. The heads have suckers and varying skinfolds/lappets (which are species dependent) that are used to attach to the host. There are three main species, Anoplocephala perfoliata, Anoplocephala magna and Paranoplocephala mamillana.

Anoplocephala perfoliata is the most common of the three species and is the only reported species with clinical impact. Morphologically, this species presents with suckers and back facing skin folds. The mature parasite attaches to the lining of the horse’s cecum and small intestine and can measure approximately 8 cm in length and 1 cm in width. The eggs appear as D-shaped and are approx. 65 to 80 µm in diameter. Anoplocephala magna morphologically presents with suckers and no lappets. The mature parasite worm attaches to the small intestine and can measure up to 80 cm in length and 2.5 cm wide. The eggs appear to be 50 to 60 µm in diameter. Paranoplocephala mamillana or more recently called Anoplocephaloides mamillana,  morphologically presents with suckers that point inward and have no lappets. The mature parasite worm attaches to the small intestine and stomach and can measure up to 5 cm in length and 5 mm in width. The eggs appear to be generally oval in shape at approx. 50 to 60 µm in diameter.

The life cycle of Anoplocephala in horses initiates with the ingestion of a mite by the horse containing the infectious stage of the parasite referred to as the cysticercoid or the larvae stage. Once the cysticercoids are in the host’s gastrointestinal (GI) tract, they can mature into parasite worms and begin to reproduce. The mature tapeworms release eggs into the host which are then passed through the faeces. Mites can subsequently ingest these eggs and continue on the life cycle. 

Diagnostics

The diagnosis of a tapeworm infection in equine animals can occasionally be identified using Faecal Egg Count (FEC) testing. This form of diagnosis is considered insensitive as eggs are shed intermittently. Therefore, alternative diagnostics must be used. Other methods include the use of ELISA testing using serum or saliva and testing for the presence of anti-tapeworm antibodies present in the sample.

Treatment of equine tapeworm

Treatment of tapeworm infections are dependent on a number of variables, including the animal’s age, condition, and the overall burden level. Treatment should only be carried out once a test and risk assessment have been performed to confirm the need for treatment. Horses can live healthy lives with a small level of parasite exposure. Therefore, less frequent treatment is recommended to ensure the effectiveness of anthelmintics and maintain parasite refugia. 

Refugia is the concept of leaving some internal parasites unexposed to anthelmintic drugs and therefore assisting in management of drug resistance. Refugia can be achieved by various management strategies, including deliberate low contamination of pastures before treatment, light reinfection of livestock from low contamination pastures, targeted selective treatments and leaving approximately 10% of livestock untreated.

Frequent FEC testing and enforcing a management plan can aid in the reduced risk of infection at peak grazing times. All treatment decisions should be discussed with an advisor to ensure a sustainable control plan is followed and no complex interactions occur. 

Having an understanding of how Anoplocephala infection may occur, the signs of infection and how best to treat these infections can aid in the management of your
horse’s health to maintain a healthy and thriving animal. 

References:

[1] Thomas R. Klei 2019, Gastrointestinal Parasites of Horses, MSD [Internet]. Available from: https://www.msdvetmanual.com/horse-owners/digestive-disorders-of-horses/gastrointestinal-parasites-of-horses#Strongyloides_v43544554

[2] Martin K. Nielsen 2019,Tapeworm-Associated Colic in Horses, MSD. [Internet]. Available from: https://www.msdvetmanual.com/digestive-system/gastrointestinal-parasites-of-horses/tapeworm-associated-colic-in-horses?query=horse%20tapeworm#Diagnosis_v45395389

[3] Sandy Love, Tim S. Mair, 2012  Equine Medicine, Surgery and Reproduction (Second Edition) Science Direct, [Internet]. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/veterinary-science-and-veterinary-medicine/anoplocephala-perfoliata#:~:text=Three%20species%3A,and%20stomach)

[4]University of Saskatchewan 2021, anoplocephala-and-paranoplocephala,[Internet]. Available from: https://wcvm.usask.ca/learnaboutparasites/parasites/anoplocephala-and-paranoplocephala.php

[5] Bimeda, Equimax,Tapeworms – A serious threat to horses in the U.S.  [Internet]. Available from: https://www.equimaxhorse.com/parasites/tapeworms-threat

[6] Marta Špakulová, John S. Mackiewicz et al. 2011, Advances in Parasitology, Science Direct [Internet]. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/anoplocephalidae

[7] Teagasc 2024, Autumn Equine Internal Parasite Control,Teagasc. [Internet]. Available from: https://www.teagasc.ie/rural-economy/rural-development/equine/equine-health/autumn-equine-internal-parasite-control/

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At our stand, we will have plenty of freebies to give away as well as will be handing out free packs of our Micron ID pots for sample collection. We’d like to encourage all livestock farmers and horse owners to use these pots to find their nearest Micron Kit testing site. All you need to do is select your desired location and drop the pots off there for same-day FEC test processing. The Micron ID pots allow for easy sample and data collection making your FEC testing experience as hassle free as possible allowing for the best overall experience when taking care of your animals health.

We look forward to meeting with you all and showcasing our products on Row 23, Stand 557 next Tuesday, September 17th to Thursday 19th of September in County Laois.

The post Come visit us at the Ploughing 2024! appeared first on Micron Agritech.

A major element of an animal’s diet is their protein consumption. Protein is known to aid in animals’ resilience to parasite susceptibility. Providing feed supplements, such as protein-rich supplements have been seen to reduce the parasitic burden in livestock [1]. An example of this is evident in a study whereby groups of lambs were exposed to various pastures, including new, established, supplemented and unsupplemented, and Fecal Egg Count (FEC) tests were performed. The FECs of lambs who were exposed to new and supplemented pastures showed lower FEC values than others [2].

Proteins are macronutrients needed within livestock diets to support a healthy immune system through the generation and repair of muscle, hormone and enzyme regulation and to trigger immune responses [3]. Livestock receive protein in the diet through different forms, such as their standard eating habits and extra supplementation. Ruminant animals harbour special microorganisms in their rumen that allows for the breakdown and conversion of plant proteins into microbial protein, which is a major source of protein for grazing animals.

Rumen microbial protein supplies approximately two thirds of amino acids absorbed by ruminant animals [4]. Bypass proteins are proteins consumed by ruminants that cannot be digested by rumen microorganisms. These proteins are not necessary in the diet unless there are specific needs, such as during pregnancy and lactation. For equids, unlike ruminants, the equine microorganisms in the foregut allow for the breakdown of most proteins to amino acids and are absorbed for muscle growth, etc. However, any food that cannot be digested in the foregut moves to the hindgut. Plant matter, such as the protein found in plant cell walls, are fermented in the hindgut by microbes [5]. 

Figure 2. Digestive system of a ruminant animal

The breakdown of protein provides the amino acids needed for cytokine and antibody production in the animal’s bloodstream that initiate an immune response. This enables the body to fight off any infections present, including parasites.

It is of great importance that more vulnerable animals, such as young stock or pregnant and lactating dams or ewes, achieve increased protein and supplemented diets as their immune systems are most susceptible to parasitic infection. In ewes, horses and goats, a circumstance of periparturient relaxation of resistance (PPRR) can occur while in later stages of pregnancy and early lactation. This means the previous resistance held by the animal to parasitic infection is lost or presents lower than usual, resulting in increased susceptibility, which can be a source of infection to their young [6][7]. This issue is less prevalent in cows as cows present with an overall stronger immune system. 

Supplementation of trace minerals, or micronutrients, has also been found to aid in regulating parasitic resistance in livestock [8]. Deficiency in trace minerals can lead to inadequate biological process pathways. These micronutrients are required for enzymes. Enzyme deficiency allows for a reduction in the efficacy of the immune system; therefore resulting in an animal being more  susceptible to a parasitic infection [8]. All supplementation should be discussed with an animal health advisor to avoid undesirable interactions occurring. 

Phosphorus, an essential mineral that works alongside calcium to ensure healthy bones, also works in the gut for absorption of essential nutrients [9]. Cobalt is essential for the production of vitamin B12 and the formation of red blood cells in ruminants and horses. These minerals are important elements needed for efficient immune responses [10]. Iron is a required micronutrient in healthy livestock and an essential part to robust livestock immunity. Animals that are ill with a parasitic infection may need more iron supplementation to prevent anaemia. 

For grazing livestock, swards – the name given to a portion of ground covered with grass – is a major source of nutrition. It is proven that multispecies swards contain bioactive forages. These pastures are believed to have a lower parasite burden than a single species, and studies are in progress to further this. Chicory, clover and plantain should be considered in pasture due to their composition of condensed tannins [11]. Tannins have been found to decrease the growth of the larval stage of parasites [12]. This type of sward also allows for a variation of protein and minerals to the animals. For all swards, it is recommended that sward heights are no less than 3-4 cm for grazing to avoid the ingestion of infected larvae [13]. 

The overall health of an animal is determined, like humans, by a balanced diet. The correct nutrients can contribute to  a sufficient immune system, reducing susceptibility to a severe parasitic infection. Ensuring all dietary and supplemental needs are met and understood can help livestock fight off any infection they may face. 

References

[1] SCOPS 2012, Parasites technical manual 4th edition [Internet].  [cited 2024 July 03] Available from: https://www.scops.org.uk/workspace/pdfs/internal-parasites-technical-manual-4th-edition-do-not-use-as-updated-version-online.pdf

[2] BJ Campbell et al, 2021, The effects of protein supplementation and pasture maintenance on the growth, parasite burden, and economic return of pasture-raised lambs [Internet]. [cited 2024 July 03] Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8309954/

[3] Andrew LaPelusa; Ravi Kaushik. 2022, Physiology, Proteins  [Internet]. [cited 2024 July 03] Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555990/

[4] Veterinary World  2008, Various factors affecting microbial protein synthesis in the rumen [Internet].  [cited 2024 July 03] Available from: https://www.veterinaryworld.org/2008/June/Various%20factors%20affecting%20microbial%20protein%20synthesis%20in%20the.pdf

[5] Hira Laboratories 2024, Digestion [Internet].  [cited 2024 July 03] Available from: https://hiralabs.co.nz/digestion/

[6] Panagiota Tyrnenopoulou et al 2021, Interactions between Parasitic Infections and Reproductive Efficiency in Horses [Internet]. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2673-6772/1/3/16 

[7] Grace VanHoy 2023, Overview of Gastrointestinal Parasites of Ruminants [Internet] [cited 2024 July 03] Available from: https://www.msdvetmanual.com/digestive-system/gastrointestinal-parasites-of-ruminants/overview-of-gastrointestinal-parasites-of-ruminants#Epidemiology_v81478970

[8] Wormboss, Nutrition for Resistance and Resilience to Worms – Sheep [Internet] [cited 2024 July 03 ]Available from: https://wormboss.com.au/tests-tools/nutrition-for-resistance-and-resilience-to-worms-sheep/#:~:text=Feeding%20protein%2Drich%20supplements%20such,or%20more)%20of%20bypass%20proteins

[9] IFP- Inorganic feed phosphates 2024, Phosphorus: a vital source of animal nutrition [Internet] [cited 2024 July 03]  Available from: https://www.feedphosphates.org/index.php/guides/11-guides/11-phosphorus-a-vital-source-of-animal-nutrition#:~:text=Phosphorylation%20is%20responsible%20for%20intestinal,large%20number%20of%20co%2Denzymes.

[10] Anna Erickson 2019, Cobalt deficiency in sheep and cattle [Internet] [cited 2024 July 03] Available from: https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/livestock-biosecurity/cobalt-deficiency-sheep-and-cattle#:~:text=All%20ruminants%20

[11] SCOPS 2022, Graze forages with anthelmintic (bio-active) properties [Internet]. [cited 2024 July 03] Available from: https://www.scops.org.uk/workspace/pdfs/2-4-4-graze-forages-with-anthelmintic.pdf

[12] B.R. Min et al 2003, Tannins for suppression of internal parasites [Internet]. [cited 2024 July 03] Available from: https://academic.oup.com/jas/article-abstract/81/14_suppl_2/E102/4789858?redirectedFrom=fulltext

https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/12/4/510#:~:text=Iron%20is%20a%20necessary%20trace,and%20proteins%20in%20the%20body

[13]  AHDB Beef & Lamb, Hybu Cig Cymru and Quality Meat Scotland, Worm control in sheep  [Internet]. [cited 2024 July 03] Available from: https://meatpromotion.wales/images/resources/Worm_Control_in_Sheep_09-17_+notes_cropped.pdf

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To ensure the health of livestock on the farm, it is important to understand the parasitic treatments available and how to maintain them effectively. Gastrointestinal parasites that inhabit the digestive tract of livestock can result in many symptoms of illness and can be detrimental to weight gain, feed efficiency and productivity. 

There are many ways to tackle the challenge of parasites, but the most common way to control them is through the use of anthelmintics. 

 

Anthelmintics

Anthelmintics (also called drenches, wormers or parasiticides) are drugs used to treat worm infections. [2] The drench can be given to the animal through oral, injectable or pour-on methods. Studies have shown that all methods of administering the drenches cause resistance issues. However, pour-on methods appear to have less resistance issues due to their variable efficacy. There are five classes of drenches, differing in the way they work and their chemical structure. [2][11]

The five classes are: 

While drenches have been an effective method of killing parasitic worms found in livestock in the past, there are increasing reports of worms developing resistance to these actives due to persistent use over time. This is known as anthelmintic resistance. 

 

Anthelmintic resistance

Anthelmintic resistance (AR) is the loss of sensitivity of the parasite to the anthelmintic drug that would typically kill the worm population. In studies, it has been shown that the growth of AR is evident in different parasitic worms and different classes of anthelmintic throughout various continents [7]. Understanding the mechanism of how resistance arises is of great importance. Research investigating the parasitic biology and the target of the drug have aided in understanding the mechanisms of resistance, providing valuable information to lessen the impacts by implementing cautionary measures.[2][7] 

 

Reduce the Risk

Many actions can be taken to reduce the risk of resistance and ensure drenches are used effectively [3][4][5][6]

 

Care should be taken when choosing the type of anthelmintic to be prescribed.

The appropriate drenches should be considered to ensure efficacy against the target parasite and where it is in the life cycle. Proper dosing technique should be followed, including calibration of equipment and correct dosage for animal weight. Knowledge of farm and animal history can aid treatment decisions and prevent the overuse of a particular anthelmintic. [17][9]

 

How the pasture is managed when an influx has appeared.

A sufficient grassland and grazing management plan should be in place in accordance with season and livestock, to ensure high-risk pastures are considered during the risk assessments. Ensure treated animals do not move straight to a clean pasture before a wait period to prevent contamination of the new pasture. Rotational grazing as a pasture management strategy has been seen to contribute to the control of parasites by limiting exposure of the animals to the infective larval stage. [3][10]

Some protocols recommend maintaining the proportion of the worm population not exposed to anthelmintic treatment. This is known as refugia.[12] [13] Common strategies to enable this include:

• Deliberate low contamination of pastures before treatment
• Light reinfection of livestock from low contamination pastures
• Managing which animals to treat with targeted selective treatments 
• Leaving approximately 10% of livestock untreated. [13]

 

 

To ensure quarantine of new livestock to prevent contamination.

New livestock should be treated and housed away from the cohort, to allow any contamination of resistant parasites to be passed through the gastrointestinal tract before introducing to the cohort. [5]

 

Perform drench testing.

Drench testing, also referred to as Faecal Egg Count Reduction Testing (FECRT), is an easy way to test the effectiveness of drenches in animals. This test involves the comparison of a faecal egg count (FEC) of a sample group before and after treatment. The initial FEC  quantifies the severity of the parasitic infection before treatment with anthelmintics.  The post-treatment FEC is carried out using a sample collected a set number of days after the worming dose has been administered. The efficacy of the drench is determined by a reduction in the egg burden between the two tests. There are many criteria required to ensure accuracy is achieved in this procedure. [4]

 

Drug rotation.

It is important to avoid frequent and repeated overuse of the same anthelmintic active ingredient as the parasites can become resistant to classes of anthelmintics. The use of a combination of anthelmintics, which allows for the target of different parasites using different methods of action, has previously been recommended to ensure the target is achieved. While rotation of anthelmintic groups was once used as a delay method, due to the widespread resistance of Benzimidazole and the increasing presence of resistance in Levamisole and Macrocyclic lactones, this rotation is now likely to be ineffective. [11]

 

Feed supplementation.

The effects of livestock nutrition can aid in the resistance and resilience of parasitic infection. The effects are related to the feed supplementation as well as pastures. For pastures, studies show that a multi-species sward has shown a lower parasite burden than a single species. It is recommended that sward heights are no less than 3 to 4 cm for grazing to avoid the ingestion of infected larvae [16]. Providing feed supplements, such as protein rich supplements high in digestible ungraded proteins, have been seen to reduce the parasitic burden in livestock [15]. Supplementation of trace minerals has also been found to aid in regulating resistance. Deficiency in trace minerals such as phosphorus and cobalt can leave livestock, such as sheep, with a susceptibility to worm infection [14]. All supplementation should be discussed with an advisor to ensure no complex interactions occur. 

 

 

Tackling the challenge of parasites in livestock is very important.  It is important to remember, the careful choice of anthelmintic, maintenance of pasture and ensuring quarantine of new livestock is being monitored, aid in the reduction of parasites in the livestock. Other methods including performing drench testing, drug rotation and feed supplementation are also recommended. Through these maintenance and preventative measures, the efficient health of the livestock can be achieved. 

 

References 

[1] Dasenaki, Marilena & Kritikou, Anastasia & Thomaidis, Nikolaos 2023, Meat safety: II Residues and contaminants. 10.1016/B978-0-323-85408-5.00007-8. [Internet]. [cited 2024 May 16 ] Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/363431999_Meat_safety_II_Residues_and_contaminants

[2] Animal Health Ireland 2021, Parasite control – good practice in responsible use of anthelmintic medicines [Internet]. [cited 2024 May 17] Available from: https://animalhealthireland.ie/assets/uploads/2021/04/AHI-Parasite-Control-Good-Practice-in-responsible-use-of-Anthelmintic-Medicines-2021.pdf?dl=1

[3] Teagasc 2021, Understanding pasture contamination and its implications for management, Teagasc. [Internet]. [cited 2024 May 17] Available from: https://www.teagasc.ie/news–events/daily/sheep/understanding-pasture-contamination-and-its-implications-for-management.php

[4] Teagasc 2022, How to check if your worm dose is effective, Teagasc. [Internet]. [cited 2024 May 16] Available from: https://www.teagasc.ie/news–events/daily/sheep/how-to-check-if-your-worm-dose-is-effective.php

[5] Teagasc 2023, Control and treatment of stomach worms in sheep, Teagasc. [Internet]. [cited 2024 May 17] Available from: https://www.teagasc.ie/news–events/daily/sheep/control-and-treatment-of-stomach-worms-in-sheep.php

[6] Teagasc, Control of internal parasites in calves, Teagasc. [Internet]. [cited 2024 May 28] Available from: https://www.teagasc.ie/publications/2017/control-of-internal-parasites-in-calves.php

[7] Baiak BHB, Lehnen CR, Rocha RA 2018, Anthelmintic resistance in cattle: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Livest Sci. 2018;217:127–135. doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2018.09.022 [Internet]. [cited 2024 May 17] Available from: https://www2.uepg.br/biomodel/wp-content/uploads/sites/27/2020/03/Baiak_ls_2018.pdf

[9] Jabbar A, Iqbal Z, Kerboeuf D, Muhammad G, Khan N, Afaq M. Anthelmintic resistance: the state of play revisited. Life Sci. 2006;79(26):2413–2431. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2006.08.01016979192 [Internet]. [cited 2024 May 28] Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.2147/IDR.S332378

[10] Animal Health Ireland 2021, A Guide to Parasite Control at Turn-out [Internet]. [cited 2024 May 24] Available from: https://animalhealthireland.ie/assets/uploads/2021/06/PC-Parasite-Control-Turn-Out-2021.pdf?dl=1

[11] SCOPS, Selecting the appropriate anthelmintic [Internet]. [cited 2024 May 28] Available from: https://www.scops.org.uk/workspace/pdfs/2-5-selecting-the-appropriate-anthelmintic_1.pdf 

[12] SCOPS, Resistance selection mechanisms [Internet]. [cited 2024 May 28] Available from: https://www.scops.org.uk/workspace/pdfs/1-3_resistance_selection_mechanisms_1.pdf

[13] SCOPS, Preserve susceptible worms [Internet]. [cited 2024 May 28] Available from: https://www.scops.org.uk/workspace/pdfs/2-2-preserve-susceptible-worms.pdf

[14] Wormboss, Nutrition for Resistance and Resilience to Worms – Sheep [Internet]. [cited 2024 May 28] Available from: https://wormboss.com.au/tests-tools/nutrition-for-resistance-and-resilience-to-worms-sheep/#:~:text=Feeding%20protein%2Drich%20supplements%20such,or%20more)%20of%20bypass%20proteins.

[15] SCOPS 2012, Parasites technical manual 4th edition [Internet]. [cited 2024 May 28] Available from: https://www.scops.org.uk/workspace/pdfs/internal-parasites-technical-manual-4th-edition-do-not-use-as-updated-version-online.pdf

[16] AHDB Beef & Lamb, Hybu Cig Cymru and Quality Meat Scotland, Worm control in sheep  [Internet]. [cited 2024 May 28] Available from: https://meatpromotion.wales/images/resources/Worm_Control_in_Sheep_09-17_+notes_cropped.pdf

[17] SCOPS Administer Anthelmintics Effectively [Internet]. [cited 2024 May 28] Available from: https://www.scops.org.uk/workspace/pdfs/2-1-administer-anthelmintics-effectively_1.pdf

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